This study compares the structural and functional properties of four animal-based seafood species—salmon, scallop, squid, and snapper—with their plant-based (PB) analogues using differential scanning calorimetry, cooking loss, and texture analysis. Animal-based seafood showed distinct thermal transitions linked to protein denaturation, whereas PB analogues, made from texturised vegetable proteins, konjac, and starches, exhibited melting profiles reflecting their unique composition and pre-cooked processing. Notably, sous-vide cooking retained moisture more effectively in animal seafood than pan-frying, while PB products’ cooking losses varied depending on species and method. Texturally, animal-based squid was firmer while PB analogues generally had lower structural integrity and softer textures. This study uniquely provides a direct comparison across multiple seafood species and commercially available PB seafood analogues, addressing a significant knowledge gap in how current PB products replicate the thermal and textural properties of real seafood. These findings offer critical insights for improving PB seafood formulations to better mimic animal-derived counterparts, benefiting both product development and consumer acceptance.

Swift global transition toward sustainable food systems led to increasing demand for alternative protein sources capable of replicating the nutrition and sensory attributes of animal meat. Plant-based meat analogues (PBMA) are central to this shift, driven by consumer interest in environmental management, health, and ethical considerations. This review examines the comparative functionality and processing behavior of major plant proteins; soy, pea, and wheat, and a diverse range of emerging sources such as faba bean, lentil, chickpea, and mung bean. Particular emphasis is placed on their structural composition, amino acid balance, and key functional properties including gelation, emulsification, and water- and oil-holding capacities that govern texture, juiciness, and mouthfeel. High-moisture extrusion (HME), the dominant technology for PBMA production, is discussed with a focus on how heat, shear, and moisture induce protein unfolding, alignment, and cross-linking to create fibrous, meat-like structures while influencing digestibility and amino acid availability. Protein blending strategies are highlighted as tools to improve texture, nutritional quality, and processing performance while reducing dependence on allergenic or monoculture-prone crops. Ingredient innovations such as hydrocolloids, modified starches, and tannin-mediated protein modification are reviewed for their roles in enhancing structural integrity, moisture retention, and flavor, and for mitigating anti-nutritional factors. The article presents a comprehensive framework for optimizing PBMA by integrating insights from food chemistry, processing, engineering, and sustainability science. The synthesis of ingredient functionality, extrusion dynamics, and sensory outcomes offers a pathway toward the development of next-generation meat analogues that are nutritionally balanced, environmentally responsible, and broadly acceptable to consumers.

The increasing demand for sustainable protein sources highlights the need to explore novel crops with high nutritional value and functional potential. Lupinus angustifolius, a legume recently introduced in Uruguay, was comprehensively characterized to evaluate the nutritional composition, bioactive profile, and techno-functional properties of its flours. Six seed samples representing two cultivars were analyzed for proximate composition, fatty acid profile, minerals, phenolic compounds, tocopherols, antioxidant capacity, and functional attributes. Protein contents ranged from 35.4% to 38.7% (dry basis), and high fiber levels (39–48%). Lipid contents (6.4–9.9%) were dominated by unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic and linoleic acids. Mineral concentrations of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and zinc were within reported ranges. Bioactive and antioxidant analyses revealed moderate total phenolic contents (0.71–1.60 mg GAE/g) but significant contributions of flavonoids and γ-tocopherol as the predominant isoform, conferring a notable antioxidant capacity (up to 61,509 μmol TE/g by ORAC). Principal component analysis highlighted associations between flavonoids, tocopherols, and antioxidant capacity. Techno-functional evaluations showed high water-holding capacity (2.5–3.0 g/g), oil-holding capacity (1.6–1.9 g/g), and pH-dependent protein solubility, consistent with the behaviour of α- and β-conglutins. Overall, Uruguayan L. angustifolius flours present a valuable nutritional and functional profile, supporting their potential as sustainable plant-based ingredients. These results reinforce the role of lupin as an emerging protein-rich crop that may diversify plant protein sources while contributing to the development of functional foods aligned with sustainable food systems.

The objective of this work was to generate and characterize complexes of quinoa proteins (QP) with either resveratrol (RSV) or tocopherol (TOC) whose dimensions fell into the nanoscale. The QP-based nanocomplexes characterization was carried out jointly with encapsulation efficiency determination. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) showed no covalent bond formation and indicated that the protein’s secondary structure was modified. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) images and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) measurements confirmed that the addition of bioactive compounds did not substantially alter the protein’s original size. A consistent particle diameter of 100 nm was observed in both types of nanocomplexes with and without RSV and TOC. The antioxidant capacity of nanocomplexes was analyzed after an in vitro simulated digestion process, showing an increase in this property post-digestion. These nanocomplexes hold great potential as functional ingredients.

The reduction of meat consumption is important for maintaining the food system within its planetary boundaries and improving public health. Hybrid foods, combining animal-based ingredients with more sustainable ingredients, offer a promising solution. This study investigates the effects of incorporating Neurospora crassa mycoprotein (NCM) into hybrid burger patties and compares them with soy-based textured vegetable protein (TVP) as a control. Hybrid patties were formulated with 50% meat (beef, chicken, or pork) and 50% NCM or TVP. The study evaluated water holding capacity (WHC), oil holding capacity (OHC), water uptake rate (WUR), cooking yield, compressed juiciness, texture profile, and microstructure. Results showed that NCM had significantly higher WHC, OHC, and WUR compared to TVP. Hybrid patties with NCM exhibited higher cooking yields and moisture retention, except for moisture retention in chicken formulations, where no difference was found. Textural analysis revealed that hybrid patties with NCM increased hardness and maintained or increased shear force, while both NCM and TVP reduced cohesiveness and resilience. Microstructural analysis indicated that NCM formed a dense network, enhancing liquid retention and structural integrity. Principal component analysis demonstrated distinct differences between hybrid and all-meat patties, with NCM hybrids showing unique properties. The findings suggest that NCM modifies key textural attributes and increases the liquid retention characteristics of hybrid burger patties, offering a viable alternative to traditional meat products and TVP. Future research should focus on improving the cohesive properties of hybrid formulations and assessing consumer acceptance.

This study aimed to employ tempering and subsequent infrared (IR) heating as seed pre-treatments to enhance the functional properties and in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) of air-classified fine stream (i.e., protein concentrate) from round pea, faba bean, and wrinkled pea. Due to the absence of effective modifications on protein and starch, the tempering did not influence the separation between these two major constituents during the air classification and exhibited negligible effects on the functional attributes and digestibility of the obtained fine stream, except for water-holding capacity (WHC). As an efficient and short-time thermal method, IR pre-treatment led to protein denaturation and starch gelatinization in round pea, faba bean, and wrinkled pea, thus showing some negative influence on the separation of protein and starch in the air classification. Although IR heating reduced the protein solubility of fine stream from 79.9%-83.4% to 24.0%-33.1% for the three pulse varieties, this pre-treatment did not considerably affect their particle morphologies and size distributions nor foaming and emulsifying properties. As a result of protein denaturation, IR heating enhanced WHC from 0.42-0.65 g/g to 1.82-1.98 g/g and IVPD from 78.6%-83.0% to 85.3-86.7% for the three fine stream samples. IR heating can be utilized to pre-treat different pulse seeds to improve the techno-functional attributes and digestibility of protein concentrates from air classification.

Plant proteins are increasingly recognized for their role in sustainable diets, with functional properties being critical for food applications. However, the influence of extraction methods on legume proteins remains underexplored. This study compared dry, wet, and mild fractionation for producing protein-rich lentil fractions and assessing their nutritional and functional properties. Red lentils were tempered to 12% moisture, roller-milled, and then pin milled to create a fine parent flour (d90 < 40 μm) suitable for air classification and wet extraction. Air classification at 10,000, 7,000, 6,000, and 4,000 rpm speeds yielded protein-rich fractions, with the 6,000 rpm setting (cut point 22 μm, d90) offering an optimal balance of purity and yield. In wet fractionation, lentil protein isolate (89.2% protein) was produced through alkaline extraction and isoelectric precipitation, while mild extraction produced protein concentrate by just alkaline extraction (64.2% protein). Functional analysis showed wet extracted isolates performed better in emulsification, water, and oil absorption, while dry fractionated proteins performed better in foaming, solubility, and gelling. Mild wet extracted concentrates demonstrated good emulsification and oil absorption but poor foaming stability. Amino acid analysis showed that lentil protein isolate had higher concentrations of hydrophobic amino acids, particularly isoleucine, leucine, and phenylalanine compared to dry fractionated samples, which may contribute to its enhanced emulsifying properties. The dry fractionated samples maintained a similar amino acid profile as that of lentil flour contributing to its native functionality. In conclusion, dry fractionation offers a sustainable, eco-friendly alternative to wet extraction, preserving native protein integrity while delivering comparable functionality.

Commercially available plant-based milks are milk analogues manufactured to mimic the emulsion structural, nutritional, and functional properties of animal milks by combining plant materials extracted from e.g. oat or almond combined with added fats, vitamins and minerals. It is not yet clear how the molecules in plant-based milks interact to form the milk structures or even what the composition of the final products is. The purpose of this review is to bring together evidence relating to the molecular composition of plant-based milks and the structural arrangement of the molecules in the final products. Much of the available work involves chromatographic methods, microscopy, gravimetric, volumetric and elemental analyses methods. Although confocal microscopy with fluorescence labelling has been used to stain for different molecules in milk, there is little information on inter-molecular interactions. There is thus a need for new methods to investigate component interactions to ensure the maintenance of plant milk product quality.

Brewers’ spent grain (BSG) is the main side-stream of the brewing industry with an annual production of 40 million tons of wet weight. BSG has a protein content of 15-30 % dry basis, which makes it an interesting material for protein extraction. Normally, extraction is performed under high temperatures or high alkaline conditions. In this study, microwave-assisted extraction, pulsed electric field, ultrasound, and ohmic heating were tested to extract proteins from BSG without pH adjustment (pH 6) or at pH 9. The extracts were further tested for their emulsifying activity. The results obtained showed that the use of ultrasound at pH 9 resulted in the highest protein content and protein recovery of 24.1 % and 58.6 %, respectively. Extracts produced from microwave-assisted extraction and ohmic heating could produce the smallest emulsion droplets; however, the stability of all emulsions was low. The present study highlights the potential of emerging technologies as an alternative to harsh solvent usage in order to extract BSG proteins.

This study investigated the formation and characterization of aerogels from soy protein isolate (SPI) at different pHs (6-10) using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) drying. The extraction yield of proteins was 33% with 92% purity. The formed SPI hydrogels and aerogels were characterized for their rheological properties, textural properties, morphology, crystallinity, chemical structure, thermal stability, and solubility. The gels formed at pH values of 7.0-10.0 were able to form strong gels, where all the gels showed a shear-thinning behavior. The hardness of the gels increased with the increase in pH from 7.0 to 10.0. The resulting SPI aerogels upon SC-CO2 drying showed outstanding properties, such as surface areas of 222-278 m²/g, pore sizes of 8-11 nm, and pore volumes of 1.88-3.13 cm3/g. Their densities were ~0.21 g/cm3 with high porosities of ~83%. Further, SEM images of aerogels showed three-dimensional open porous structures, where the structures were more heterogeneous at higher pH values, leading to a higher surface area. XRD and FTIR data provided information about the crystallinity and changes in the chemical structure of proteins, respectively. The main thermal degradation peak for aerogels was ~295 °C, which was slightly lower than that for SPI powder at 303 °C. The water solubility of SPI powder increased with the formation of aerogels from 17-19% to 30-36%. Overall, this study provides one of the first reports on generating SPI aerogels with high surface areas for their potential use in food, pharmaceutical, and biomaterial industries.

The dominance of pulses in plant-based protein foods necessitates an investigation into their organoleptic properties. Taste, aroma, flavor, and trigeminal attribute intensities of purees obtained from pressure-cooked black bean, chickpea, faba bean, green lentil, pinto bean, and yellow pea were assessed using a trained panel. All pulse purees had similar dry matter content and relatively similar particle size distribution profiles; thus, these factors would not influence the intensities of the sensory attributes. The pulse-like attribute was consistently rated highly across all the pulse purees. The black, pinto, and faba bean purees mostly exhibited similar characteristics whilst chickpea and yellow pea purees behaved similarly. For example, the dry beans and faba bean purees had higher intensities for the bitter, earthy, and metallic aromas and lower intensities for the green, floury/starchy, sweet, and nutty aromas than those for the chickpea and yellow pea purees. Interestingly, green lentil puree largely exhibited intensities that were typical of dry bean purees. Some attributes were perceived to be more intense when assessed as tastes than aromas or vice versa. The same was also observed for attributes that were assessed as both aroma and flavor. It was found that the sensitivity of the mode of perception on the perceived intensity of an attribute may depend on the type of pulse. The similarities in sensory profiles of the pulses can be useful to first, the food industry to expand on ingredients in formulations without drastic effects on the sensory quality and second, the consumers who are neophobic.

Food proteins, essential ingredients in food products, extend product structuring and health-promoting benefits. The objective of the current study is to improve the bio- and techno-functionalities of food proteins simultaneously through non-thermal plasma exposure. Four different food proteins (pea, rice, wheat gluten, and milk proteins) were exposed to plasma at voltage 240V, frequency 1.5 kHz, and 30 min exposure time. The structural, digestibility, bioactivity, and techno-functional properties were analyzed. Plasma treatment alters the secondary structure of proteins by increasing β-structures and random coils by 3-4 times while decreasing α-helices by half, reducing surface hydrophobicity. The study found that longer treatment times and higher voltage intensities enhance protein digestibility and increase amino acid release, with gluten showing the highest improvement in both digestibility and free amino acid content among the proteins examined. The proteins also showed a loss of radical scavenging capacity after treatment due to oxidation reactions. Cold plasma treatment improved protein solubility but reduced emulsifying and foaming properties. The enhancements in digestibility and bioactivity can be attributed to structural unfolding and the exposure of reactive sites on the proteins. In summary, the effects of cold plasma treatment depend on the specific protein, treatment parameters, and the degree of oxidation.

Dry fractionation is an environmentally friendly and cost-effective method to separate protein fractions. While most research has focused on the structure and functional properties of pea protein isolates (PPI), the information on dry fractionated pea protein (DFPP) is limited. This study compared DFPP (protein content (PC)-50.7%, insoluble fiber-17%), to PPI (PC-80.1%, insoluble fiber-8.33%), in terms of the protein structure, solubility, and heat-induced gelation. SDS-Page, size-exclusive chromatographic, and Fourier-transform infrared spectrophotometer analysis indicated that DFPP contained the major protein components in pea, and their native structures were well maintained. Whereas for PPI, some proteins were lost during wet extraction, and partial protein unfolding and aggregation were observed. At neutral pH, DFPP showed significantly higher solubility (44.64±0.55%) than PPI (12.09±1.42%). Interestingly, DFPP showed good gelling capacity as reflected by lower gelling concentration and higher gel mechanical strength and elasticity compared to those made from PPI. The DFPP gels were twice higher in mechanical strength (7.71±0.21kPa) than that prepared from PPI at pH 7. Strong gels were also obtained for DFPP at pH 5. The gel morphology revealed phase separation between protein and polysaccharides by heating, with stick-shaped fiber (10-25μm) dispersed in the continuous protein networks. Eventually, the polysaccharides including fiber and starch helped strengthen the gel network by acting as fillers. This knowledge will help to expand the applications of DFPP as a gelling ingredient in food formulations, but also allow industry to benefit from the dietary fiber co-exist in the protein to develop healthier food products using a holistic approach.

There is growing interest in the design and fabrication of next-generation plant-based (NG-PB) foods that have physicochemical and functional properties that simulate those of traditional animal-based foods, like meat, seafood, egg, and dairy products. Many of these products can be considered as colloidal materials containing particles or polymers that determine their properties, which means that these properties can be understood using soft matter physics concepts. The rheological properties of NG-PB foods may vary widely, including low viscosity fluids (like milk), high viscosity fluids (creams), soft solids (like yogurt), and hard solids (like some cheeses). For manufacturers of NG-PB foods to mimic this broad range of products it is important to have theoretical models to identify, predict, and control the key parameters impacting their textural attributes. In this article, the theoretical models developed to describe the properties of fluid, semi-solid, and solid colloidal dispersions are described, and their potential for improving the design and fabrication of NG-PB foods is highlighted. In the future, it will be important to establish the most appropriate models for different categories of NG-PB foods and to determine their range of applications.

Oilseeds need to be exploited not only for the oil but also as a source of functional protein-rich ingredients for food. This work evaluated the physicochemical properties of the colloidal fraction resulting from wet milling of rapeseed, used as model oilseed. The extraction was conducted either at natural pH (5.7) or at alkaline pH (8.5), with or without addition of a commercial pectinase. The slurry was mixed for 4 h at room temperature, and then pressed at the same pH or after shifting to alkaline/acidic pH. The resulting extract, rich in oil and protein particles, showed differences in particle size, microstructure and composition. The oil and protein yields in the extract (in relation to the amount originally in the oilseed) ranged between 60 and 70 %, with a significant increase in protein recoveries with addition of pectinase, regardless of the pH. A protein concentrate, containing between 25 and 42 % protein on dry matter, depending on the treatment was obtained after centrifugation, together with a fiber precipitate and an oil fraction. The composition of the concentrates varied, with the highest purity found for extracts at pH 5.7, showing a nearly complete physical separation of the oleosomes by low speed centrifugation. All concentrates showed similar protein composition, as analyzed by gel electrophoresis. The amino acid composition was also similar amongst the treatments. This work evidences the critical role played by biopolymers’ interactions in forming different colloidal structures, with clear consequences on the functionality of the final ingredient.