The health risks associated with saturated and trans fats have intensified interest in alternative structuring systems for bakery fats. This study evaluated five natural waxes (beeswax, carnauba wax, rice bran wax, coconut wax, and soy wax) blended with extra virgin olive oil at 9% and 12% (w/w) and crystallized at 4 °C or −18 °C, to assess their functionality as margarine replacers in cake batters. Oleogels were characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, rheology, and oil-holding capacity. Batter performance was assessed through creaming index, density, and color, while baked cakes were evaluated for texture profile (TPA), porosity, and surface color. Results showed that wax type, concentration, and crystallization temperature significantly influenced oleogel structure and batter behavior. Beeswax and rice bran wax formed semi-flexible crystalline networks that closely mimicked margarine in terms of aeration and stability, producing cakes with comparable porosity, texture, and visual attributes. Carnauba wax enhanced creaming stability but limited air incorporation, while soy and coconut waxes showed weaker structuring and reduced batter performance. Crystallization at −18 °C improved gel strength and network definition across most wax types. Overall, beeswax and rice bran wax oleogels demonstrated strong potential as clean-label, functional fat alternatives in aerated cake systems, offering structural and sensory properties similar to traditional margarine.

Square-wave voltammetry (SWV) was investigated as a potential analytical tool for quantitation of unsaturated fatty acid oxidation in edible oils exposed to high heat. A traditional linear regression calibration curve and a novel single-point calibration method were used to quantitate linoleic acid in oxidized oil samples. These methods were compared to a standard method for fatty acid analysis via gas chromatography flame ionization detection (GC-FID). Both GC-FID and SWV methods were able to detect a decrease in linoleic acid concentration for heated oil samples. SWV methods routinely calculated higher linoleic acid concentrations compared to GC-FID analysis. A novel finding is that SWV oxidation peak intensities, which are associated with electroactive compounds, decrease in intensity over time for peaks below 1.0 V and increase for peaks above this voltage. These findings represent a step forward in electrochemical characterization of heated oils in addition to further advancing opportunities for electrochemical oil quality screening.

A combination of Raman spectroscopy and multivariate modeling was applied to build classification models to assess water content in soybean biodiesel. The Raman signature region of water and the characteristic vibrational modes from –CH 2 and -CH 3 moieties were used to build the models, as they are chemically influenced by water presence in biodiesel. Also, through data mining of the biodiesel digital signature region, structural modifications associated with -CH 2, CH 3, and -C=C groups were found to be related to water presence. The fluorescence influence in modeling was also studied, a common Raman interference whose origin in biodiesel can be associated with species such as vitamin E, carotenoids, and chlorophylls. Overall, an accuracy higher than 80% was reached for all models, and an improvement in the figures of merit was observed when spectra with a fluorescence background were included in the models. Furthermore, those classifications based on discriminant analysis (Partial Least Squares and Interval Partial Least Squares) reached area under the curve (AUC) values of 0.92 and 0.94, indicating a very good performance for biodiesel classification in compliance with the Brazilian legislation (ANP n° 920/2023), whose limit value of water content is currently set in 200 mg kg -1.

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) decompose various organic wastes into valuable oil and protein for promising biofuel, cosmetic, food and feed applications. In this paper, temperature-controlled mechanical pressing (70, 90, 110, 130 °C) was employed to fractionate BSFL oil and defatted protein meal simultaneously. Higher temperature obtained higher oil yield without significant impact on the protein yield and material losses. BSFL oil extracted at 110 °C showed a good yield (18.83%), fatty acid profile and saturation level (53.48 g I 2/100 g iodine value and 219.10 mg KOH/g saponification value) similar to palm oil. It exhibited the lowest peroxide value (12.90 mEq/kg) and free fatty acid content (1.14%), with a high carotenoids content (192.60 ppm). Due to the potent antioxidant capacity, the accumulation of carotenoids would help to maintain the quality and protect the oil against oxidative attack. As a result, lower degree of oxidation ultimately improved the oxidative stability and reduced the peroxide value of oil. Moreover, the high protein dispersibility index (71.25%) of BSFL meal defatted at 110 °C also indicated superior quality and bioavailability. Hence, the optimum fractionation temperature was found at 110 °C which produced lower oil rancidity, higher stability and quality of both oil and protein meal for diverse food and non-food applications.

Oxidative and physical stability of 3 and 7% beeswax-candelilla wax (BW-CDW, 1:1) oleogels prepared with flaxseed (FSO), soybean (SBO), and olive oils (OO) were evaluated during storage at 25 and 4 °C. Peroxide values (PV) and conjugated diene values (CDV) of BW-CDW oleogels were lower than bulk oils after storage at 4 °C for 180 days, and those of 7% wax oleogels were lower than 3% wax oleogels indicating the protection effect by oleogelation. In contrast, these oleogels had lower oxidative stability than bulk oils at 25 °C indicating the prooxidant activity of waxes. PV of 7% BW-CDW SBO oleogel increased slower than commercial margarine fat (CMF) at both storage temperatures while its CDV increased faster at 25 °C. Gel strength (firmness and cohesiveness) of oleogels decreased at both temperatures. Gel strength of CMF decreased faster than oleogels at 25 °C while it was steady at 4 °C. Gel strength of OO oleogels dramatically decreased during storage at 4 °C, which was likely due to large oil crystals formed that broke the wax crystal network at 4 °C. Solid wax content and melting enthalpy of oleogels increased indicating that new crystals formed during storage, which, however, did not provide higher gel strength. New spherulite crystals appeared during storage at 4 °C, which might be the reason for decreased gel strength. Overall results indicated that BW-CDW oleogels had the oxidative and physical stability comparable to CMF except for OO oleogels stored at 4 °C.

Structured lipids (SLs) containing DHA, EPA, and DHA+EPA were synthesized via enzymatic acidolysis using VCO as the substrate in n-hexane. Commercially available enzymes Lipozyme TL IM (produced from Thermomyces lanuginosus, a 1,3-specific lipase), Lipozyme IM60 (produced from Rhizomucor miehei, a 1,3-specific lipase), and non-specific lipase from Candida rugosa (powder) were used as biocatalysts. The T. lanuginosus lipase was chosen to evaluate the effects of various parameters on the incorporation of PUFAs into VCO and to optimize the process. As the enzyme load increased from 1 to 4%, the incorporation of omega-3 PUFAs also increased; however, it decreased when the enzyme load was further increased to 6%. The incorporation of these fatty acids increased with reaction time from 12 to 36h but decreased at 48h. Similarly, the incorporation increased with temperature from 35 to 45 oC, but decreased at 55 and 65 oC. The highest incorporation rates of DHA (18.91%), EPA (30.38%), and DHA+EPA (34.64%) were achieved at a mole ratio of 1:3 (VCO to DHA or EPA) or 1:3:3 (VCO to DHA+EPA), with a 4% enzyme load, 36h incubation time, and a temperature of 45 oC. A central composite design (CCD) with three levels and three factors—reaction temperature (35, 45, 55 oC), enzyme amount (2, 4, 6%), and reaction time (24, 36, 48h)—was used to model and optimize the reaction conditions via response surface methodology (RSM). Under optimal conditions of 3.3% T. lanuginosus enzyme, 42.22°C, and 33.38h, the incorporation rates were 32.92% for DHA, 44.48% for EPA, and 47.04% for DHA+EPA in VCO.

Enzymatically modified cheeses (EMC) aim to achieve, in a shorter time frame, a composition and sensory characteristics akin to those of aged cheese. This study analyzed the lipid profile, composition, free fatty acid (FFA) content, and sensory attributes of EMC pastes with the objective of emulating the flavor profile of a red smear-ripened cheese (SR). Two different smear ripened cheeses were utilized as references: SR1, aged for 2–3 months, and SR2 aged for 10 months. Twelve formulations of EMC were prepared using a fatty medium moisture cheese corresponding to Mercosur’s Danbo type cheese (MD) as sole base, with the addition of the two types of SR cheeses and enzymes including exopeptidase, endopeptidase, and lipase, with varying concentrations of the latter. The EMC formulations exhibited a different physicochemical composition compared to the SR cheeses, with higher moisture, ash content, lower fat, and protein content. The highest total FFA contents were found in formulations with SR2, followed by formulations with SR1. As the concentration of lipase increased in the formulations, a greater degree of lipolysis was observed. Sensory profile was not influenced by the concentration of lipase, but rather depended on the type of cheese used as the base. All samples prepared with SR1 besides those prepared with SR2 as the base cheese and the highest concentration of lipase, exhibited sensory profiles more closely resembling that of lightly aged SR1. The enzymatic modification of cheeses proved to be a useful tool for generating sensory profiles similar to slightly aged SR cheese.

Guerbet alcohol (GA) is β-branched primary alcohol having excellent physiochemical properties like lower pour point (PP) and higher kinematic viscosity (KV) in comparison to linear alcohol. Although different aspects of the synthesis of GA, such as methods of synthesis, catalytic systems, and reaction conditions, have been studied, but statistical modeling and optimization of the synthesis of GA have not been carried out. In the present work, the optimization of the synthesis of GA using a mixture of lauryl and myristyl alcohol was carried out with the aid of response surface methodology (RSM) considering the conversion of the reaction, PP and KV at 40˚C & 100˚C as dependent variables. The optimal reaction conditions were temperature, pressure, and time of 220˚C, 300 mbar, and 10 hours respectively. The optimum conversion was 99.141%, including dimer yield of 81.755%, PP of -3˚C, KV at 40˚C & 100˚C of 34.12 cSt & 7.22 cSt, respectively. The results obtained by the RSM were then authenticated, applying artificial neural networks (ANN) generated with the help of MATLAB. The ability of the generated model to predict the response variables was validated by less than 5% error for almost all the models, confirming the statistical significance. Also, the tribological potential for linear Ginol-12,14 (FA) and synthesized branched GA as lubricant additive was evaluated by determining its physiochemical, thermal and tribological properties.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of seasonal climate change on safflower genotype productivity in Central Anatolian conditions during 2021 and 2022. The research focused on seed yield, oil content, and oil yield, considering variations in Growing Degree Days (GDD) at different growth stages. In both years, seed yield was significantly affected by rainfall deficiency. In 2021, safflower genotypes had an average seed yield of 1540 kg ha -1, while in 2022, it increased to 2390 kg ha -1 due to higher precipitation during critical growth stages. Different genotypes showed distinct performances in seed yield each year, highlighting the importance of selecting drought-tolerant genotypes for breeding programs. Oil content also exhibited significant variations between genotypes and years. Drought stress during flowering and seed filling periods generally led to a decrease in safflower oil content. However, in 2021, despite drought during the seedling stage, there was an increase in average oil content, potentially due to compensatory mechanisms related to reduced seed yield and dry matter content. Moreover, the study explored GDD values at different growth stages, revealing substantial variation among genotypes in GDD accumulation. Genotypes with higher GDD accumulation typically displayed higher seed and oil yields, indicating their better stress tolerance. Conversely, early maturing genotypes with lower GDD values were better suited for regions with lower average temperatures. The findings underscore the importance of considering both rainfall and temperature factors when selecting safflower genotypes for specific regions. In conclusion, the study emphasizes the impact of seasonal climate change on safflower productivity and highlights the need to develop new safflower varieties capable of adapting to predicted hotter and drier conditions due to climate change.

The inevitable depletion of fossil resources and the anthropogenic climate change arising from their excessive utilization make necessary the search for renewable feedstocks and developing eco-friendly technologies for producing greener energy, fuels and chemicals. Through the present mini-review, we intend to share with the research community our relevant contributions to advance the production of carbon-neutral propylene, 1,2-propanediol and biohydrogen through thermo-chemical conversion of biomass-derived glycerol, aided by diverse heterogeneous catalysts. The reported achievements, which have been recently recognized by the “ACI/NBB Glycerine Innovation Award”, are organized and discussed in four marked sections. Thus, after having highlighted the possible economic and environmental benefits of producing such value-added commodities from bioglycerol excess, we present different re-designing actions to improve the properties of transition metals-based (e.g. Pt, Pd, Ni, Cu or Mo) supported on γ-Al2O3 or SiO2 for boosting glycerol transformation via: i) steam reforming, ii) aqueous-phase reforming, iii) hydrogenolysis and iv) hydrodeoxygenation reactions. Then, the catalytic role of metallic, acid and/or redox sites in these reactions is discussed together with the identification of the main factors affecting their stability under H2O-rich conditions. The effect of reaction configurations and operating conditions in the conversion of glycerol to the target product are also assessed. The gained knowledge on re-modulating catalyst properties and optimizing reaction strategies, including mechanisms and process operability, is expected to provide a comprehensive guideline for continuously improving the efficiency of bioglycerol upgrading routes.

Previous reports indicate variable soybean quality parameters exported from different geographic regions. This review compares soybean and soybean co-products grown under diverse environmental conditions. While numerous studies have been conducted on whole soybean and soybean meal (SBM) composition by origin, similar analysis of soybean oil is lacking. This review has two objectives: 1) summarize soybean and SBM quality by origin using a meta-analysis approach, and 2) analyze collected crude degummed soybean oil samples that originate from the US, Brazil and Argentina for key quality attributes. Soybeans from Brazil have higher levels of protein (P < 0.05) than US soybeans, but US soybeans have lower heat damage (P < 0.05) and total damage (P < 0.05) than soybeans from Brazil. US and Brazil SBM have higher crude protein (CP) (P < 0.05) than SBM from Argentina. At equal CP content, US SBM had less fiber (P < 0.0001), more sucrose (P < 0.0001) and lysine (P < 0.0001) and better protein quality than South American SBMs. Methionine, threonine, and cysteine levels were similar in soybean protein from US and Argentina and higher than that in soybean protein from Brazil. Crude degummed soybean oil from Brazil had more (P < 0.05) free fatty acids, neutral oil loss, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium than crude degummed soybean oil from the US or Argentina. Our analysis suggests that environmental conditions under which soybeans are grown, stored, and handled can have a large impact on chemical composition and nutrient quality of soybean meal and soybean oil.

The conversion of triglycerides in edible oils into diacylglycerols (DAGs) is of great significance for obtaining products with health benefits. Camellia seed oil (C-oil), which is rich in oleic acid and linoleic acid, is an excellent raw material for the production of DAGs. In this study, the hydrolysis rate reached 87.14% under optimal hydrolysis conditions (reaction temperature of 60 °C, reaction time 24 h, 30% water content and 4% enzyme addition) with RMIM as catalyst, and camellia seed oil diacylglycerol (C-DAG) with a content of 62.49% was also given under optimal esterification conditions (vacuum system, 3% enzyme addition, 2% water addition, reaction temperature of 50 oC, and substrate molar ratio of free fatty acid to glycerol of 1:1). The high content of DAG was obtained by a coupled method, which eliminated the purification steps and reduced production costs. C-oil, and C-DAG have been characterized by means of GC, TG, DSC, and GC-IMS. Our results showed that the enzymatic coupling method did not affect the structural composition of the substances themselves, but did affect the crystallization and melting properties of the oils. Moreover, the taste of C-DAG was more delicate flavor than that of C-oil. Finally, the reaction mechanism has been analyzed by means of infrared spectroscopy, which showed that C-oil was mostly hydrolyzed to free fatty acids. C-DAG exhibited ester C-O stretching vibrations in the range 1280–1030 cm-1, indicating successful esterification reaction between camellia seed oil free fatty acids (C-FFAs) and glycerol under catalysis by the enzyme.

This study conducted a thorough investigation into the impact of two emulsification techniques, namely high-pressure homogenization (HPH) and microfluidization (MF), on the emulsification of krill oil. The comprehensive analysis encompassed various aspects, including particle size characterization, structural assessment, oxidative stability evaluation during storage, measurement of bioaccessibility, and in vitro simulated digestion analysis. Emulsions produced through MF exhibited several noteworthy advantages over those generated by HPH. Most prominently, MF-prepared emulsions featured smaller and more uniformly distributed particles, in stark contrast to the less uniform particles generated by HPH. Moreover, MF-based emulsions demonstrated significantly enhanced oxidative stability during storage, with astaxanthin degradation occurring at a substantially lower rate (38.11% for HPH compared to 89.44% for MF). When assessing emulsion behavior during in vitro simulated digestion, microfluidization formulations exhibited superior stability and markedly higher bioaccessibility in comparison to their HPH counterparts. Of particular significance was the remarkable increase in the release of free fatty acids observed during the intestinal phase of digestion in MF emulsions, indicating an improved lipid digestion process. This study firmly establishes microfluidization as the superior method for crafting emulsions of krill oil, especially within the context of the food industry. Microfluidization not only ensures the preservation of oil quality during storage but also significantly enhances emulsion stability and promotes improved digestibility. These findings hold substantial promise for the development of delivery systems for n-3 fatty acids, making them suitable for incorporation into a wide range of commercial food, beverage, and pharmaceutical products.

Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters [FAME]) is a renewable biomass-based diesel (BBD) fuel made from plant oils, animal fats and waste greases. Its production continues to increase globally, especially with more countries moving to increase the use of renewable fuels. One of the main disadvantages of biodiesel is its relatively poor oxidative stability. During longer periods of storage at fuel terminals or in vehicle tanks and fuel systems, biodiesel can react with oxygen in ambient air, leading to degradation that can adversely affect its viscosity and ignition quality. The shelf-life of biodiesel is an important property that can determine the conditions such as how long it can be stored at low temperatures. The objective of this work is to develop mathematical equations to estimating the shelf-life of biodiesel at T = 25 °C. This was done by measuring the induction period by Rancimat instrument (IP R) at different temperatures and extrapolating the results using two types of linear models. Model equations were developed from regression analysis performed on results for canola, palm and soybean oil-FAME (CaME, PME and SME), methyl oleate (MeC18:1) and methyl linoleate (MeC18:2). The best results from confirmation analysis were obtained for Model B type equations. This model type correlated ln(IP R) with inverse T (T −1) data and provided the most realistic estimates of the shelf-life (SL B) of the five FAME studied in this work.

The development of winter-tolerant safflower genotypes is crucial for the improvement of global safflower agriculture. The aim of the present study was to determine the cold tolerance abilities and some agricultural characteristics of advanced safflower genotypes. For this purpose, ten advanced safflower genotypes were used in four different locations. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with three replications. Winter survival and agricultural characters were significantly affected by growing season, location and genotype. Winter survival varies between 86.43% and 93.91% among the genotypes, and it was promising for winter sowing. As the average of two years, the highest oil content (36.25%) was observed in genotype EC21 and it was followed by genotypes EC11 (35.51%) and EC20 (35.49%). As with the seed yield, the high winter survival of genotypes with high oil content is highly promising in terms of winter sowing. Safflower should be grown in winter with mild temperature regions for high seed yield and sustainable safflower production. Therefore, this study focused on winter-tolerant genotypes that are superior one in terms of seed yield and oil content.

The triacylglycerols (TAGs) containing saturated (Sat) -unsaturated (U) fatty acid moieties (Sat-U mixed acid TAGs) are widely present in most natural fats and employed in many industrial applications. The mixing behavior of different Sat-U mixed acid TAGs acts important roles in the physicochemical properties TAG-based materials. Among the three main mixing states of miscible, eutectic and molecular compound (MC) forming mixtures, fundamental research has been conducted on the MC crystals formed by different Sat-U mixed acid TAGs to understand the structures, phase behavior and crystallization properties. This article reviews recent studies on the complex thermodynamic, kinetic and structural factors that affect the formation of MC crystals in binary and ternary mixtures of Sat-U mixed acid TAGs (SatUSat, SatSatU, USatU and UUSat) through specific molecular interactions among the component TAGs. Furthermore, the application of the MC-forming mixtures containing cacao butter to new types of cocoa butter alternative is reviewed.

The presence of insoluble components greatly minimizes the potential application of pulse proteins in beverage emulsions. Therefore, pea protein concentrate was mildly fractionated by aqueous centrifugation at 4,000g for 1 min to recover a soluble fraction (71% protein yield), which was then used to develop 5% oil-in-water emulsions using a high-pressure homogenizer. Emulsion stability was tested by heat treatment (90°C, 30 min) in the presence of NaCl (0-1M) at pH 7.0 and 2.0. Stability increased upon adding salt at pH 7, while at pH 2, proteins and droplets aggregated. Heat treatment led to extensive aggregation at both pH values due to denaturation and aggregation of proteins at the oil droplet surface, which was further worsened by salt. To prevent thermal destabilization, the proteins were heat-treated at 75°C for 30 min for partial denaturation before emulsification under hot conditions. The heat-treated protein-stabilized emulsions at pH 7 had superior thermal stability at all salt concentrations without aggregation. However, a similar improvement in stability was not observed at pH 2. Pre-heating the soluble protein exposed the hydrophobic patches, leading to better adsorption on the droplet surface, which did not show additional aggregation upon further heating the emulsions at pH 7. The heat-treated protein-stabilized emulsions showed about a 44% drop in lipid digestibility compared to the original emulsions. The proposed approach could be a valuable addition to the utilization of pea proteins in developing beverage emulsions that could withstand the heat treatment used during food processing.

We investigated the development of water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions just using CW, evaluating the effect of the water to CW oleogel ratio (40:60, 50:50, 60:40) and, at each ratio, the effect of the CW concentrations (0.75% to 3%). The emulsions were developed by shearing (60 s at 25°C) using an ultra-turrax type homogenizer. The emulsions were immediately evaluated and after 20 days of storage (25°C) for microstructure, water droplet diameter, emulsion stability through DSC freeze/thaw cycles, rheological properties, and X-ray measurements. The results showed that, at all water to oleogel ratios studied the CW developed structured W/O emulsions where the surface-active components of the CW (i.e., triterpenic alcohols, aliphatic alcohols, and fatty acids) stabilized the oil-water interface, while the n-alkanes and long chain esters formed an oleogel in the oil phase. Although, independent of the storage time, all the CW emulsions showed a frequency independent rheological behavior, after applying a strain above the G’-G” cross point, the 40:60 and 50:50 emulsions with 1.5% to 3% CW concentration showed the better rheological behavior and were the most stables, even after two freeze-thaw cycles. In particular, the 40:60 and 50:50 emulsion with 1.5% CW had a recovery profile similar to commercial mayonnaise. In contrast, independent of the CW concentration, the 60:40 emulsions showed the lowest recovery profiles and higher instability to freeze-thaw cycles. These results indicated that the CW is a multi-functional material able to develop structured W/O emulsions useful for the formulation of trans-free, stable low-fat edible spreads.