Water erosion is the main soil degradation process in landscapes under human pressure. The assessment of soil losses according to biophysical factors is the key to understanding erosion processes. This study aimed to assess the biophysical and anthropological factors controlling the change in water soil erosion rates under different morphological units as an indicator of geological evolution, topographic variety, and land use. The revised Universal Soil Loss Equation model was employed to estimate the soil erosion rates and evaluate soil loss. The geographic information system was used to present the spatial distribution of soil erosion and its change induced by geological and morphological factors. Non-parametric multidimensional scaling ordinations were applied to evaluate similarities in soil erosion parameters between six geomorphological units. The analyses showed a clear clustering between morphological units, both in terms of absolute soil loss and in the distribution pattern of erosion rates. The unit, characterized by variable slopes and consisting of basic and acid rocks, has been found to have the highest soil loss rate due to its age. This small unit, along with others of similar size, significantly contributes to the total soil loss. On the other hand, areas of low slope that are conducive to agriculture ranks highest in sediment production. The land use and management factor, particularly the presence of secondary vegetation, supports water erosion. However, the findings indicate that erosional processes in complex landscapes are driven by a combination of this factor, the age of the units, and the high topographic variability.

The Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) is a key eco-environmental protection barrier and economic engine in China. Understanding the characteristics of its eco-environmental spatiotemporal evolution and mechanisms driving these changes is important for revealing shifts in ecosystem structure and function. However, the governing elements of the ecological environment and how these components interact remain unclear due to the strong coupling impact of urbanization and climate change. This paper constructed a long-term series remote sensing based ecological index (RSEI) to evaluate the characteristics of eco-environmental variation of YREB since 2000. Subsequently, the fundamental reasons of the eco-environmental evolution were quantitatively analyzed using optimal parameters-based geographical detector (OPGD). Results indicated: 1) The average RSEI of YREB was 0.68, indicating a rather high overall eco-environmental quality (EEQ), with 73% of the region having RSEI values more than 0.60. The regions with excellent conditions were concentrated in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Guizhou, and Hunan, while the poorer areas were in northwestern Yunnan, southwestern Sichuan, and western Hubei. 2) The EEQ of YREB mainly showed a degradation trend, with degraded areas exceeding 80% over the past 25 years. In the future, most areas might face higher risks of ecological degradation. 3) DEM, temperature (Tem), and population (POP) were key driving factors of the ecological environment. There were significant interactions between certain factors, with the interaction between DEM and potential evapotranspiration (Pet) explaining 62.2% of the ecological quality distribution. The findings assisted the creation of an ecological civilization by offering policy proposals for managing and conserving ecological environments.

Understanding the dynamic process of community diversity after grazing exclusion is crucial for the management and conservation of alpine grassland ecosystems. This study conducted a ten-year grazing exclusion experiment at four altitudinal gradients on Mount Gongga, ranging from 3000 m to 4130 m. Community diversity was surveyed at each altitude for the years 2012-2016, 2020, and 2022. We examined the changes in community diversity and species composition by mixed-effects model, principal coordinate analysis and triangular plots of β-diversity comparisons. Several key findings were revealed: 1) The mixed‐effects models showed that the interactions of altitude and time were significantly correlated with α-diversity, and the α-diversity at all altitudes shows a decline in the long-term grazing exclusion period, but the community composition at low altitudes changes at a slower pace compared to other altitudes; 2) Across all altitudinal sites, β-diversity patterns are similar initially and subsequently influenced by species replacement at 4130m with 7 new species appeared at 2022 compare to 2012, while at 3850 m, the richness difference is primary factor; 3) Species composition changes were more influenced by pioneer species (e.g., Potentilla leuconota and Plantago asiatica) at lower altitudes, whereas livestock-preferred species, such as those from the Cyperaceae and Poaceae families, played a crucial role at middle to high altitudes. These results illuminate the complexity of ecological replacement and how various factors, including altitude and grazing exclusion, influence the dynamics and composition of alpine grassland communities over time.

Soil degradation is an essential environmental problem that threatens agricultural productivity and sustainability in the typical black soil region in northeast China. Assessing the degradation status and risks of sloping cropland is necessary to restore and reconstruct degraded soil. This study aimed to map soil degradation status based on a newly developed soil degradation index (SDI) and assess the uncertainty associated with degradation risk mapping using Ordinary Kriging and Sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS). The results showed that SDI ranged from 0.013 to 0.864, with a mean value of 0.445. The realization with 200 times by SGS was the best, with an increasing pattern of SDI from north to south in the study area. Mildly degraded and moderately degraded sloping cropland accounted for 35.3% and 52.4% of the total area of sloping cropland, respectively. High-risk areas were mainly distributed in the Greater Xingan Mountains and Changbai Mountains to the Songnen Plain. Proactive measures are necessary to control and mitigate further degradation by developing soil management and weakening the interaction between slope gradient and ridge-slope angle. The developed risk assessment maps provide baseline information for regional sustainable development.

Under the global Sustainable Development Goals initiative, the pursuit of well-being is gradually shifting from wealth to sustainable development. Re-examining the contribution of regional economic, ecological, and social development to the common creation of well-being, analyzing their deep connections, will help us understand the multidimensional concepts and processes of development, and provide ideas for further promoting the construction of a more equitable and sustainable world. China is moving from comprehensive prosperity to common prosperity, and the continuous improvement of sustainable well-being provides effective samples for our research. This study focuses on 46 counties in the Qinba Mountains region of China, and constructs a coupled performance indicator system for sustainable well-being in mountain villages. The Super SBM model is used to evaluate the matching performance of input and output factors, with Economic capital, Ecological capital, and Social capital as explanatory variables and Sustainable Happiness Index as the expected output. Research has found that: (1) There is a mismatch between the input and output factors of sustainable well-being in the Qinba Mountain area, and management techniques are a key factor hindering the improvement of the coupling performance level of sustainable well-being in the Qinba Mountain area; (2) The coupling performance level of sustainable happiness in the Qinba Mountain area is showing a downward trend, and only adjusting the input-output relationship by about 1.02% can achieve optimization and growth in performance level; (3) There is a significant shortage of input factors, with 87% of counties experiencing insufficient economic capital, about 76% experiencing insufficient arable land, and 41% experiencing insufficient social capital. To solve these problems, it is necessary to strengthen the sustainable management level of each county in terms of ecology, economy, and social integration, continue to promote capital investment in mountainous areas to improve economic level, strictly use arable land, optimize land use structure, strengthen social governance level, improve residents’ satisfaction level, and thus enhance sustainable happiness level. This will provide useful reference for achieving sustainable development goals in similar regions of the world.

Carbon stock options to mitigate climate change have become a major area of interest across the globe. Climate change is a global issue, and every possible way to mitigate it, is being explored. Afforestation and ecosystem restoration activities are widely adopted to improve the potential of the land in carbon storage. The Kerala State Action Plan on Climate Change proposed the ‘Trees outside forests (Tof)’ as an effective mechanism to mitigate climate change. Due to its discrete distribution and non-uniformity, there are fewer attempts to measure the potential of these systems. This study tried to determine and compare the carbon (C) stock potential of the three “Trees outside forest (Tof)” conditions prevailing in the Palakkad district, Kerala. The carbon stock by standing biomass and soil of four sites of undisturbed natural vegetation, monoculture plantation, and home garden was estimated using allometric equations and computations. The natural vegetations was found to have a higher carbon stock potential (238.58 Mg ha -1) compared to monoculture plantation and human habitat. Also, natural vegetation’s soil organic carbon content was much higher than monoculture plantations and home gardens. The study also estimated the soil deterioration index of each land use compared to the natural vegetation and barren land. The results of the study suggested that land use has a great influence on soil quality and carbon stock potential. Proper management of these Tof systems can enhance their productivity and contribute accountable support towards mitigating climate change.

Microbial residue carbon (MRC) is an important source of soil organic carbon (SOC) formation and plays a vital role in the accumulation and retention of SOC. Vegetation restoration is an effective strategy to restore degraded lands. However, there are no studies on how MRC in the profile changes with vegetation restoration. We evaluated MRC (using amino sugars) accumulation and its contribution to SOC in different soil depths (0-20, 20-50, and 50-100 cm) during vegetation restoration in a severely eroded forest (CK), a restored forest (as ecological restoration management), an orchard (as development management model), and a secondary forest (as ideal control). Microbial biomarkers were extracted from soil profiles and used to measure microbial diversity and microbial community composition (using 16S rRNA). Vegetation restoration, soil depth, and their interaction with each other significantly affected MRC, fungal residue carbon (FRC), and bacterial residue carbon (BRC) contents. The MRC content showed an increasing trend for the four vegetation restoration models in the following order: CK < orchard < restored forest < secondary forest. Furthermore, the contribution of MRC to SOC increased with the increasing soil depth for the restored forest. The rapid accumulation of MRC was substantially influenced by SOC, total nitrogen content, soil pH, bacterial and fungal diversity, bacterial phylum, and fungal phylum. In conclusion, the model of vegetation restoration and soil depth play important roles in the accumulation of soil microbial residue carbon in a red soil erosion area. These findings are pivotal for improving our mechanistic understanding of microbial regulation of SOC preservation during vegetation restoration of a degraded ecosystem.

：Soil ciliates, crucial components of grassland ecosystems, serve as sensitive bioindicators of soil health and disturbance. This study investigates ciliate communities across four grassland use types on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP): seasonal and continuous grazing in natural grasslands (SGG and CGG), artificial perennial Elymus nutans Griseb. grasslands (PEG), and artificial annual Avena grasslands (AAG). Using live observation techniques, we identified 114 ciliate species from 10 classes and 21 orders, with Haptorida and Sporadotrichia emerging as dominant groups. Our findings reveal that grazing grasslands harbor greater endemic ciliate species richness compared to AAG. SGG and CGG exhibited significantly higher ciliate diversity (Shannon, Simpson, and Margalef indices) than other use types, while PEG and SGG supported higher ciliate abundances. Low Jaccard similarity indices between grassland types indicate distinct ciliate communities, reflecting management-induced environmental heterogeneity. Redundancy analysis identified above-ground biomass and soil pH as primary drivers of ciliate community structure. Notably, seasonal grazing (SGG) promoted the highest ciliate diversity, suggesting its potential as a sustainable management practice for maintaining soil health on the QTP. This research provides crucial insights into the relationship between land management and soil microbial diversity in high-altitude grasslands. Our findings support the implementation of moderate grazing practices to enhance soil quality and ecosystem resilience on the QTP, with implications for sustainable management of similar ecosystems worldwide.

The perceived impact of soil microplastics on soil aggregation is primarily attributed to their potential toxicity toward soil microorganisms. However, only a limited number of studies have undertaken comprehensive controlled experiments involving sterilized soils to substantiate this notion. The present study embarked on soil incubation experiments encompassing both non-sterilized soils and soils subjected to oven-heating sterilization to investigate the ramifications of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) microplastics, characterized by mesh sizes of 30, 150, and 1000, on both the water-stability and mechanical stability of soil aggregates. The presence of microplastics decreased aggregation stability in Tianjin soils (on average -48.89% and -81.61% for 0.5-1 and 1-2 mm aggregates, respectively). The impact of microplastics was notably more evident in the non-sterilized soils. Microplastics also demonstrated the capacity to modify aggregate properties such as surface roughness. This study indicates the pivotal role played by interactions between soil microplastics and microorganisms on soil aggregation, but microplastics hold the potential to influence soil aggregation through non-biogenic pathways.

Microorganisms play a key role in maintaining the stability of vegetation-soil-microbial systems and terrestrial geochemical processes in alpine meadows. To investigate the effects of different management practices on the structure and function of microbial communities, the present study used metagenomic sequencing to investigate the structure and function of soil microbial communities in the southern Qilian Mountains of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in response to the management practices of fenestration (FE), winter grazing (WG), transition zone between natural and artificial grasslands (TZ), and artificial unicast oats (AU). The management measures significantly changed vegetation diversity and soil physicochemical properties. The prokaryotic community structure was considerably similar in FE and WG, as well as in TZ and AU. Near-natural (FE) and artificial establishment (AU) disturbances changed the fungal community structure. Enzymes related to carbon metabolism did not respond significantly to the management measures, whereas those related to nitrogen metabolism did not respond significantly in TZ and AU. The relative abundance of enzymes involved in nitrogen metabolism was higher under TZ and AU than under FE and WG. We concluded that grassland management measures altered the structure of aboveground graminoid and leguminous vegetation communities and belowground biomass allocation, resulting in changes in K uptake, causing significant changes in the structure of fungal communities and nitrogen-metabolizing enzymes; moderate disturbance (WG) was beneficial for maintaining the stability of microbial communities in alpine grasslands.

The achira crop (Canna edulis) is a symbol of the ancestral productive potential of the department of Huila. According to the Regional Information System (SIR) of the Governor’s Office of Huila, the area planted with annual achira in the department in 2020 will be 82.3 hectares and the local demand for starch (400 tons/year) will be imported from other departments (Cundinamarca and Nariño). Apart from its economic potential, its importance in ecosystem services is added, since its management is organic, limited to cultural work, making this crop valuable in mitigating the effects of the decline in pollinator populations, especially wild bees, due to the problems caused by the rapid growth of coffee monoculture and other conventionally managed crops, making it crucial to better understand the relationship between biodiversity and agricultural production, and to develop sustainable management strategies that promote the conservation of pollinators and biodiversity in general. The objective was to characterize the diversity of floral visitors associated with the Achira (Canna edulis KER) crop in different thermal soils in the department of Huila, characterizing the study area, identifying native bees and visitors in the crop through field visits to three farms located in the municipalities of Garzón and San Agustín, concluding that altitudinal or thermal soil variations may affect the distribution of native bee species and other visitors, reducing their abundance. In order to determine the direct relationship between altitude and diversity, it is suggested to make new efforts in this aspect, since factors such as the management of neighboring agroecosystems and proximity to forest remnants intervene. Organic crops of high cultural value, such as (Canna edulis), represent an alternative of safe conditions to stimulate the visit of wild bees and other insects that can be considered of high economic value due to their biological importance in agroecosystems.

Synergy between pollinators and flower strips is an emerging strategy that favors agricultural sustainability and biodiversity conservation. Bees and other pollinators, together with flower strips, are crucial components that can be exploited to improve pollination and biological pest control in crops. However, few publications review the topic, especially in Colombia. Therefore, to Know and understand this intersection will enable the development of more appropriate management tools to maximize ecological and agricultural benefits. We compiled studies based on a bibliometric and systematic analysis using the Web of Science database (WoS) of either approach that looked for an association pollinators/flower strips. The records obtained were analyzed using graph theory and tools such as VOSviwer and Tree of Science divided into three categories: classical, structural and recent. 155 studies were identified the main author was Tscharntke Teja, important authors such as Klein, Alexandra and Potts, Simon have an H-index of 74 and 80 respectively. In addition, the countries with the highest production in this area are Germany in first place, England in second and the United States in third, allowing to conclude that the integration of pollinators and floral strips has awakened a growing interest among international communities, although it is still considered an emerging field within scientific research. The research outcomes provide valuable insights for future research trends and agricultural policies focused on biodiversity conservation and mitigation the effects of climate change. The findings suggest that flower strips in enhancing ecosystem services, underlining their role in increasing biodiversity and the resilience of agroecosystems.

Dear editor, I would like to cancel the pre printing service for the paper submitted to "Land Degradation&Development", as there are still many points in the paper that need to be revised based on the reviewer's comments. The paper title "Spatial heterogeneity characteristics and driving mechanisms of abandoned farmland at different scales and regions in China".  thank you! 

Climate change and biodiversity loss are severe and intertwined global threats. Land-based efforts to address both require an understanding of the spatial relationships between carbon storage and biodiversity. Here, we present a systematic review and meta-analysis of the strength of these spatial relationships across the literature. We synthesize the estimated spatial correlations and infer how different factors (spatial scale, metrics, biome, human pressure) impact these strengths using linear mixed-effect models. Our results show that spatial scale is a significant factor, and the combination of metrics used to express carbon storage and biodiversity plays a more important role. While relationships are moderately positive across all conditions, the strength of the relationships decreases significantly from global to local scales. We find large variations in the strength for different metrics, across different biomes, and in the presence or absence of human pressure. We find a stronger relationship in natural rather than human-dominated landscapes for temperate forests, grasslands and deserts, but the opposite for tropical and subtropical forests. Ecosystem-level biodiversity proxies (habitat quality) show strong relationships to the total carbon pool, while taxonomic metrics (species richness) show a weaker relationship. The largest negative relationship is between total carbon and flora & fauna species richness. Our results suggest different synergies for different dimensions of carbon storage and biodiversity and shed light on where further effort is needed.

The investigation of the resilience of cultivated land in primary grain producing regions, considering both natural and human characteristics, holds significant theoretical and practical importance. We aim to elucidate the feedback mechanism of regional cultivated land systems in response to various pressures and coercions, and design both a theoretical evaluation system and an econometric evaluation model of cultivated land resilience in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River in China. It analyses the spatial and temporal development of cultivated land resilience from 2001 to 2020. Additionally, we use a geographic detector to uncover the influencing mechanism of multi-dimensional factors. The research findings indicate that the cultivated land resilience index in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River has experienced a general increase of 7.2%. However, it exhibits a cyclical evolution of ”decline-recovery” in the time sequence. Additionally, the spatial pattern of cultivated land resilience is evident, with high values observed in the area extending from the middle to the surrounding areas. Furthermore, there is a positive spatial correlation between cultivated land resilience and the level of agglomeration, with a gradual increase in the agglomeration level. The spatial heterogeneity of cultivated land resilience is influenced by the interplay of various factors, resulting in a two-factor enhancement that is partially non-linear. The intensity of each factor’s role varies across different time periods, and its significance gradually transitions from ecological pressure to scale structure, ultimately leading to food security. It is determined that the utilisation of cultivated land resources at the regional scale exhibits significant environmental intricacy, temporal fluctuations, and geographical heterogeneity. Consequently, the ensuing ambiguity in food security emerges as a crucial matter that warrants consideration at the national strategic level. The examination of cultivated land resilience offers a more comprehensive framework for identifying and diagnosing the primary deficiencies within the cultivated land system at the regional level. This, in turn, improves the region’s capacity to effectively address environmental changes and mitigate development risks. Additionally, it facilitates the establishment of an optimal spatial allocation of cultivated land resources at the regional level, promoting sustainable and robust development of the cultivated land system.

Abrupt vegetation shifts indicate sudden and profound changes in ecosystem structure and function, which may lead to excessive pressures on regional water resources and thus undermine sustainability. In the context of ecological restoration and climate change, it is unclear whether large-scale abrupt vegetation shifts have occurred on the Loess Plateau and what are the differences and mechanisms associated with the effects of these vegetation changes on soil moisture content (SMC). In this study, we found that approximately 27.9% of grasslands and 24.8% of forests on the Loess Plateau experienced positive abrupt vegetation shifts from 2000 to 2020, which may be associated with the implementation of the Grassland Ecological Compensation Program (GECP) and the Natural Forest Conservation Program (NFCP). By using the climate zone method and multi-period difference-in-differences (MDID) model, we found that the effects of abrupt vegetation shifts on SMC were heavily dependent on local climate conditions. While most abrupt vegetation shifts could wet surface soil (0–7 cm), only 55.9% of grasslands and 33.9% of forests in abrupt shifts had positive effects on entire soil (0–289 cm), specifically in areas with lower precipitation and stronger evaporation conditions. In contrast, approximately 35.7% of grasslands and 37.6% of forests in abrupt shifts may exacerbate soil drying. This study fills the knowledge gap in the effects of abrupt vegetation shifts on SMC and tries to explore the underlying mechanisms, with implications for water management and ecological programs in areas with similar climate conditions.

Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) significantly contribute to land degradation in the Amazon, carried out by individual miners or small enterprises with limited capital. This practice exerts increasing pressure on biodiversity-rich forests. Due to limited information on edaphic conditions crucial for the restoration of these degraded areas, we employed a soil evaluation method in representative sites of the Peruvian Amazon, including two native communities and one protected natural area. The categorization of ASGM degraded areas into Cultural Landscape Units (CLUs) was confirmed and validated. Sentinel-2 and UAV remote sensing revealed over 122,000 ha deforested since the 1980s. Surface and soil profile assessments identified extreme new soil conditions with low chemical and physical fertility, characterized by coarse texture and rock fragments, hindering revegetation, especially during prolonged drought seasons. These degraded soils were classified as Entisols and Technosols according to Soil Taxonomy and the World Reference Base, respectively. Over time, natural regeneration and plantations improved soil formation, aligning with recognized soil classification systems. Given the current management practices, restoration planning should prioritize selected shrub and tree species, considering soil amendments to initiate soil recovery. This approach aligns with self-sustained successional stages and contributes to the objectives of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN), Appropriate Mitigation and Adaptation Actions (NAMAs), and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Agroecology has been addressed as one of the most prominent alternatives to achieve sustainability in agriculture, both for land and people. For this reason, academics, authorities, social leaders and organizations from many fields have urged a transition from modern conventional to agroecological agriculture. However, farms are complex systems, and this transition demands the transformation of a broad set of characteristics and practices that are a consequence of the farm administrator decisions. These are, in turn, conditioned by its specific context (social, educational, economic, political). Therefore, a clear understanding of the main drivers behind the management of farms is vital for supporting an effective transition, where the process remains stable and does not return to the previous state (conventional production) or reaches an alternative state (permanent degradation). For this reason, this research evaluated the Main Agroecological Structure (MAS) of 20 farms in different degrees of agroecological transition, in five locations of the northern-central Andean region of Ecuador. The farms had a moderately developed structure on average (71.05 over 100), and MAS variation was significantly related to the study site. One of the main differences between sites was a more extended prevalence of cooperation and development programs. For this reason, the author proposes that MAS measurements should be complemented with deeper analyses of the capacity-building background of each site. This study aims to establish a baseline of the MAS in Ecuador, and to provide new tools for monitoring agroecological transition.