Adulteration of edible oils poses significant health and economic risks worldwide. This systematic review evaluates the types of adulterants present in edible oils and critically examines analytical detection methods, emphasizing their reliability, sensitivity, and applicability. The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines. A comprehensive search strategy using defined keywords and Boolean operators was applied across PubMed, JSTOR, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus, covering literature from 1965 to 2025. Additional studies were identified through Google Scholar, forward and backward citation tracking, and manual searches of relevant journals via platforms such as ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Wiley Online Library, and Taylor & Francis. National and international regulatory documents, including government gazettes and food safety standards, were also reviewed. Eligible studies were published in English and focused on edible oil adulteration, additives, or detection methodologies involving analytical, spectroscopic, chromatographic, or molecular techniques. Exclusion criteria included duplicates, low-quality studies, inaccessible full texts, insufficient data, and studies on non-edible or industrial oils. The search yielded 460 records. After removing duplicates and screening, 266 articles were assessed by title and abstract, and 198 full texts were sought, of which 86 were unavailable. Of the 112 full-text articles reviewed, 69 were excluded due to poor data reporting, methodological weaknesses, irrelevance, or being in a non-English language. An additional 81 studies were included from previous reviews and other sources, resulting in 123 studies analyzed, and no protocol was registered for this review. A range of modern and traditional methods exists for detecting oil adulteration. However, with the advent of new adulteration methods that are not detectable with conventional quality parameters, continuous improvements and regulations are essential.

The use of lipases in biodiesel production has gained attention as a more sustainable and efficient alternative to chemical catalysts, attributed to their operational reusability and minimal environmental impact. As an innovative approach in this study, a blended alcohol composed of 20 mol% methanol and 80 mol% 1-butanol was employed as the acyl acceptor in the enzymatic synthesis of biodiesel. Lipozyme TL IM-catalyzed transesterification was conducted in a packed bed reactor to produce biodiesel from soybean oil and the blended alcohol, using tert-butanol as the solvent. The effects of tert-butanol amount, temperature, and water content on biodiesel synthesis were investigated as a function of the reaction time. Optimum conditions were a tert-butanol to soybean oil volume ratio of 1:3. a temperature of 30°C, and a water content of 0.3% (based on the total substrate weight). The highest biodiesel yield of approximately 93% was obtained under the optimum conditions. In addition, a biodiesel yield of approximately 80% was obtained in the continuous process over 60 reaction cycles.

In response to evolving health concerns over trans and saturated fats, oleogels have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional solid fats in food systems, especially bakery products. This review offers comprehensive insights into the composition, structuring mechanisms, and functional applications of oleogels in baked products. Strategies for oleogel formulation, the microstructure of different oleogel systems, their properties, and nutritional benefits are discussed in detail. A bibliometric analysis was performed using the Web of Science Core Collection to further assess the emerging scientific trends and research intensity in this domain. An in-depth year-wise and country-wise analysis of publications was also conducted to analyze the impact of countries contributing to the field. Keyword co-occurrence was visualized through network and density visualization, revealing strong thematic clustering around dominant research themes. Regulatory considerations, specifically those established by the European Food Safety Authority, are discussed, identifying critical areas that must be addressed. While oleogels hold great potential as fat replacers, their application is limited due to sensory acceptability, thermal reversibility, cost, and scalability. Nevertheless, oleogels demonstrated a significant potential as clean-label, functional fat replacers, with future innovations likely to focus on developing hybrid oleogelator systems for enhanced performance and broader application.

In oil-in-water emulsions, lipid oxidation begins at the interface between the two phases. One strategy to slow down this process is to place antioxidants at the interface, where they can directly block oxidative reactions. This study explored that idea by conjugating soluble faba bean protein with tannic acid using the free-radical grafting method. The conjugate improved the surface activity and showed a more compact structure at the interface than the protein. The resultant conjugate (containing 1 wt% protein) was used to prepare a 5 wt% canola oil-in-water emulsion at pH 3. The conjugate-stabilized emulsions displayed a D 4,3 of 560 nm and a zeta potential of 38.6 mV. An accelerated creaming velocity of 348.5 µm/min at 2100g suggested a reasonably stable emulsion. Environmental stability was assessed under varying NaCl concentrations, freeze-thaw cycle, heat treatment (90ºC for 30 min), and a combined heat-salt over 28 days. The emulsions were stable to freeze-thaw cycle and heat treatment, while salt addition led to extensive droplet aggregation. Autofluorescence confocal microscopy confirmed the presence of tannic acid at the oil droplet surface. Measurement of peroxide and p-anisidine values underscored the pivotal role of interfacial tannic acid in retarding lipid oxidation. After 28 days of storage at 60ºC, the conjugate emulsion’s p-anisidine values were notably lower than those of the protein emulsions, affirming the enhanced oxidative stability provided by the interfacial polyphenol. These findings confirmed the potential of protein-polyphenol conjugates to improve lipid oxidative stability in emulsions.

Oleogelation the process of structuring liquid oils into solid-like gels using minimal amounts of gelators has emerged as a promising strategy to replace traditional solid fats in foods with healthier alternatives. A wide range of oleogelators has been studied, from low-molecular-weight compounds (waxes, monoglycerides, fatty alcohols) to polymeric materials (e.g., ethylcellulose); this review highlights the recent innovation of utilizing dietary fibers as oleogelators in structured lipid systems. Dietary fibers such as cellulose, pectin, and inulin can interact with oils via particle network formation or polymer entanglement, creating three-dimensional gel matrices that immobilize the oil and yield semi-solid oleogels with butter-like texture. The mechanism of fiber-based oleogelation is discussed in depth, revealing how factors like fiber particle size, molecular structure, and processing conditions influence gel formation and stability. Fiber-structured oleogels effectively mimic the functional properties of saturated fats in various food applications (e.g., spreads, bakery products, and processed meats) while offering significant health advantages. Replacing conventional solid fats (rich in saturated and trans fats) with fiber-based oleogels formulated from unsaturated oils leads to a markedly improved nutritional profile, characterized by a healthier fatty acid composition and added dietary fiber. These oleogels can thereby help reduce saturated fat intake and increase fiber consumption, contributing to better cardiovascular health and metabolic outcomes. Additionally, fiber oleogels may enhance oxidative stability of oils and serve as carriers for bioactive lipophilic nutrients, further broadening their functional benefits. The review surveys current food applications, demonstrating that fiber oleogels can maintain desirable texture, mouthfeel, and stability in products ranging from margarine alternatives and shortening replacers to fat-reduced meat and dairy analogues. Furthermore, the use of natural fibers as structuring agents aligns with clean-label and sustainability trends by avoiding artificial additives and reducing reliance on palm oil and hydrogenated fats and enabling the upcycling of agricultural fiber byproducts. Despite the promise of fiber-based oleogels, challenges remain in optimizing their gelling efficiency, sensory attributes, and long-term stability. Future research directions include modification of fibers or co-oleogelator strategies to fine-tune gel properties, as well as comprehensive evaluations of their performance in complex food matrices, consumer acceptance, and regulatory status. Overall, this review underscores the novelty and significance of fiber-based oleogels as a transformative approach to create healthier, fiber-enriched, and sustainable fat replacers, capable of improving the nutritional profile of foods without compromising quality or sensory appeal. Altogether, fiber-based oleogel technology holds great promise for next-generation food formulations aimed at health and sustainability.

This article studied the process of subcritical carbon dioxide isobaric extraction of chive seed oil. Box Behnken design was used for experimental design and optimization, and the effects of main parameters such as extraction pressure (11-23 MPa), temperature (50-70 ℃), and extraction time (60-150 minutes) on the experimental results were analyzed, the response surface method (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) were applied for modeling and predicting of the extraction yield. the performance of RSM and ANN models were analyzed and compared by statistical parameters such as coefficient of determination (R 2), root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and chi-square (χ 2). the RSM model is more accurate than the ANN model. Subsequently, optimization was carried by two different approaches viz. RSM and ANN-GA, by comparing the RSM and ANN models and the results of RSM and ANN-GA optimization, the RSM model is closer to perfection than the predictions of ANN. the optimal extraction conditions obtained by the RSM model were: extraction pressure of 15.63 MPa, separation temperature of 57.3°C, extraction time of 121.2 min,and predicted value 15.89%, mean value of three sets of parallel experiments 15.79%, the fatty acid composition analysis of leek seed oil optimized by RSM showed that linoleic acid (60.871%), oleic acid (19.185%), palmitic acid (11.517%) and stearic acid (3.174%) were the main components, and the content of four fatty acids was more than 94%.

Soybean oil (SO) epoxidation is an extensively studied method to generate a sustainable plasticizer for polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Standard soybean oil is composed of triglycerides whose fatty acids are primarily unsaturated linoleic, oleic, and linolenic acids. High oleic soybean oil (HOSO) is collected from a soybean variety higher in oleic acid than other acids. The present study focused on a preliminary comparison of the epoxidation reaction behavior between SO and HOSO, conducted isoperibolically. The experimental data were correlated by a kinetic model. Considerable differences in the temperature and oxirane index profiles suggest that the epoxidation of HOSO tends to be faster and with a more intense heat release rate than the epoxidation of SO, which was confirmed by the results of estimated kinetic constants. The data collected and shared herein suggest that a first epoxy group generated may cause steric hindrance to slow the epoxidation in the second and third double bonds of the oil.

In the search for compounds with nutritional and functional value, seeds from several Neltuma species were examined for lipid, protein and phenolic components. Lipid contents ranged between 9.3 - 12.5 g/100 g (seed DW), and showed MUFA and PUFA predominating largely. Lipids were also a good source of tocopherols (170 – 603 mg total tocopherols/kg). Proteins accounted for 14.7 - 35.5 g/100 g seed. Essential amino acids (EAA) comprised 26.1 – 40.2 % of the total AA content. Based on the EAA score, proteins from all the species analysed were deficient in leucine, isoleucine and valine, but could meet requirements for histidine, threonine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and lysine. The qualitative patterns of phenolic compounds were similar each other (predominance of flavonoids, particularly apigenin derivatives). Keeping in mind the examined chemical components, Neltuma seeds have potential value as a source of healthy macronutrients and bioactive compounds.

This study aims to investigate the influences of maternal dietary patterns on the triacylglycerol (TAG) composition, particular medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) in human breast milk. A total of 180 Chinese human breast milk samples were collected and divided into three dietary patterns groups accounting to semi-quantitative food intake frequency questionnaire and a 24-hour dietary recall. Using high performance liquid chromatography combined with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, 108 TAGs were identified and quantified. In breast milk samples, MLCTs accounted for 25.76 % (median of 24.63%; 95% CI: 24.60, 26.92) of the total TAGs. In human breast milk, the main type of MLCT is TAGs esterified with one medium-chain fatty acid and two long-chain fatty acids (MLL type) which accounted for ~81% of total MLCTs. Among the molecular species of MLCT, O-P-La, O-L-La, and O-L-M are the three most abundant configurations in MLCT (2.28%, 2.17%, and 2.01% of total TAGs, respectively). MLCT in breast milk was positively correlated with the energy supply ratio of carbohydrates (P = 0.205), which was significantly higher than that of the other two groups (P = −0.150 and −0.232).

Silphium integrifolium Michx. (silflower), a perennial plant, is of great interest as a potential new oilseed crop due to its long, strong, deep, extensive root systems, which can prevent erosion, capture dissolved nitrogen, and out-compete weeds eliminating the need for frequent irrigation and herbicide uses. In this study, oil was extracted from unhulled silflower seeds, and its composition and oxidative stability were evaluated. The oil content in unhulled silflower seeds was 15.2 % (w/w), and its fatty acid composition was similar to that of sunflower oil. The level of total polar compounds (TPC) in the oil was 12.3 % (w/w), and the content of total phenolics was 1.12 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g oil. Noteworthily, 4.89 % squalene was isolated from silflower oil indicating its potential application as an alternative source of squalene. Silflower oil had lower oxidative stability as indicated by the oxidative stability index (OSI) at 110 °C and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), presumably due to its high level of chlorophyll (1002.8 mg/Kg). Even after a typical refining process involving degumming, alkali refining, and bleaching with Fuller’s earth, silflower oil contained 725.5 mg/kg chlorophyll, and its oxidative stability was not improved. Further treatments with bleaching agents including bentonite, sepiolite, and Tonsil® lowered the chlorophyll level to 4.2, 474.5, and 38.5 mg/kg, respectively, and some aspects of oxidative stability were improved and better than those of refined sunflower oil. This study presents the potential of silflower oil as new edible oil and a great plant source of squalene.

While the autoxidation of linseed oil has been extensively studied, the role of metal driers in catalyzing this process remains poorly understood. Previous studies have demonstrated that Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) can be used to monitor the progress of autoxidation during linseed oil drying. Typically, studies have focused on a single absorption at 3010 cm-1 to determine the rate of autoxidation. In this study, FT-IR spectra of linseed oil during autoxidation were measured between 3800 and 700 cm-1 and fit to kinetic models using global analysis, which provides more robust fitting than prior methods. This study revealed that the drier catalyzed autoxidation process can be best modeled as an A → B → C type reaction, with B corresponding to a cis-trans conjugated intermediate previously identified in model complex studies. These kinetic models further revealed that for three Co driers the rate constants for the A → B and B → C reactions are identical within experimental error, suggesting both reactions share a rate limiting step.

Abstract In this study, walnut butter was produced by mixing functinal lipids with defatted walnut meal. Three kinds of functional lipids（FL）, medium-chain triglycerides (MCT), diacylglyceroe (DG), and conjugated linoleic acid glycerides (CLA), were used to make functional lipids walnut butter(FLWB) and their physical properties as well as microscopic morphology were compared with commercial walnut butters. The FLWBs were prepared by grinding FL and defatted walnut meal through the ball milling technique. The mixing ratios of FL and defatted walnut meal were 6:4, 6.5:3.5, 7:3. It was found that the fluidity of FLWB was increased with the addition amount of FL, but the particle size of FLWB was decreased with the addition amount of DG or CLA. As the additions of DG and CLA increased from 60% to 70%, the D (4,3) of DG-WB and CLA-WB decreased by 36.23% and 20.88%; the flowability index increased by 15.74% and 168.91%. As the addition of MCT increased from 60% to 70%, there was no significant difference in D (4,3) of MCT-WB, but the flowability index increased by 717.34%. Microrheological properties indicated that both FLWB and commercial walnut butter exhibited viscoelastic characteristics. The rheology showed that the FLWB was non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluids, which was similar to the commercial walnut butter. The DG-WB and CLA-WB were closer to the commercial walnut butter, compared with MCT walnut butter. The microstructure further indicated that the walnut butter with 65% CLA addition was closer to the commercial walnut butter.

The objective of this research was to investigate the effect of temperature on the glycerolysis-interesterification reaction kinetics of immiscible and high viscous reactants at relatively low temperatures in a high shear reactor (HSR), and their physical product properties. The reaction was performed at various temperatures (80-120°C) and a mixing rate of 2000 rpm for 5 h. Results showed that the reaction rate constant increased and followed the Arrhenius equation as temperature increased. TAG conversion was 2.5 fold greater at 110 and 120°C compared to lower reaction temperatures. MAG and DAG increased by about 18.3% and 13.4%, respectively, as the reaction temperature increased from 80 to 120°C. The product’s melting point, hardness, and color were also improved by increasing temperature. In summary, structured lipids (SLs) synthesis containing high MAG and DAG could be produced at a relatively low temperature (110°C) using HSR, and followed the glycerolysis-interesterification kinetic and Arrhenius model.

Pea proteins are being widely investigated as a potential substitute for animal proteins due to health benefits and sustainability concerns. However, the limitations associated with functional properties of pea protein such as low solubility, result in poorer overall performance and render it less desirable for food applications such as plant-based milk, cream, or meat products. Different methods have been extensively studied to solve this issue. This review summarises recent and popular physical, chemical, and biological treatments used to modify the functional properties of pea proteins. The aim is to identify successful treatments, gaps in knowledge, and presenting a comprehensive analysis in methods to improve pea protein functionalities and the results after these treatments. It was concluded that chemical modification is by far the most effective in improving the solubility, emulsifying, and foaming properties of pea proteins, followed by biological treatment. The combination of different treatment methods, moreover, has shown some degree of success and provides a wider scope to improve pea protein functionalities, as a promising avenue for future studies.

In this study, oleogels based on safflower oil were produced from beeswax and rice bran wax at different ratios. It was aimed to produce cakes with high level of unsaturated fatty acids by using these oleogels as a shortening replacer. The characterization and oxidative stability of oleogels were investigated. Oil binding capacity (OBC), solid fat content (SFC) and crystallization time (CT) were determined in oleogels. Moisture content, pH, texture and sensory analysis were performed in the cakes. In addition, fatty acid composition, free fatty acidity, peroxide value, conjugated diene-triene and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and glycidyl analyzes were performed pre- and post-cooking in oleogels and shortening. SFC increased as gelator concentration increased. Beeswax showed the highest OBC. The shortest CT was determined in rice bran wax. No changes were observed in the fatty acid composition of safflower oil following oleogelation. The change in major fatty acids post-cooking was also not significant. Cakes made with oleogel were acceptable in terms of texture and sensory properties compared to cake produced using shortening. Sensory results showed that some cakes produced with oleogels more acceptable than control. This study revealed that oleogels produced with safflower oil-based beeswax and rice bran wax with high unsaturated fatty acid content can be used in cakes rather than commercial shortening.

The structuration processes of mixed oleogels produced with candelilla wax (CW, 0 or 3%), fully hydrogenated soybean oil (FH, 5-15%), and microcrystalline cellulose (MC, 0-9%) were studied to define their rheological effects. During the cooling CW crystals performed as nucleation sites for FH. The elastic modulus (G’) of oleogels with FH and 3% CW were more than two orders of magnitude higher than those produced with 0% CW. Adding MC to the oleogels increased slightly the G’. Independently of the amount of MC, oleogels structured with increasing amounts of FH and 0% CW showed the elastic properties scaling of colloidal gels. This behavior was lost by adding 3% CW, implying that in mixed FH-CW oleogels, the CW crystal network dominated the oleogel rheology. The flow point and the mechanical reversibility of oleogels and commercial butter (CB) was also determined. CB showed flow points at 44 and 59% strain and mechanical reversibility values of 29 and 35% of G’ measured in a pre-shear step. Adding MC to oleogels structured with FH and 0% CW increased their flow point (37.2%) near those of CB. This effect was not produced in mixed FH-3% CW oleogels. The mechanical recovery of oleogels produced with FH, MC, and 0% CW tend to decrease as the FH content increased. CW and MC did not show a simple concentration–effect relationship for the mechanical recovery. Nonetheless, oleogels structured with 3% CW and 10% FH and 6-9% MC showed mechanical recovery (~60%) close to that of CB.

Due to its unique triacylglycerol composition, palm oil has the particularity of being semi-solid at room temperature. Major fatty acids are palmitic (P) and oleic (O) types, tripalmitin (P3), oleo-dipalmitin (P2O) and palmito-diolein (PO2) being the most abundant tri-saturated, mono-unsaturated and di-unsaturated triacylglycerols. Palm oil is also the most fractionated oil worldwide, mostly in multi-step operations. Dry fractionation is a process that combines crystallization and separation of partially crystallized oil; in the case of palm oil, the main triacylglycerols involved are obviously P3, P2O and PO2. Crude palm oil is made up of symmetrical and asymmetric isomers and, more particularly, contains POP and OPP in a fixed ratio. This ratio may sometimes be modified during the refining process. Adverse effects of excessive OPP content affect the dry fractionation process and are also reflected in the crystallization properties of the produced solid and liquid fractions. It is therefore fundamental to understand at a molecular level the interactions involved. This paper details and compares the binary phase diagrams of several systems: PPP-POP, PPP-OPP; PPP-POO, POP-POO, OPP-POO and POP-OPP, obtained by combining differential scanning calorimetry and variable temperature powder X-ray diffraction. Co-crystallization properties are analyzed in dynamic mode (heating after quenching) and after tempering (few months stabilization at room temperature). The ternary phase diagrams PPP/POP/POO and PPP/OPP/POO give a complementary representation in terms of isothermal melting lines. Better understanding of these molecular interactions is critical for perspicacious carrying out of the palm oil dry fractionation process.