Maxwel Adriano AbeggInstitute of Exact Sciences and Technology; Graduate Program in Sciences, Technology and Health (PPGCTS), Federal University of Amazonas, Itacoatiara, Amazonas, BrazilAbstractMany natural products exert subtle yet significant effects on bacterial behavior—such as disrupting quorum sensing, inhibiting biofilm formation, or altering cell morphology—without directly inhibiting growth. These subinhibitory activities are typically overlooked by conventional antibiotic discovery pipelines, which focus on bactericidal or bacteriostatic endpoints. We propose that early modulation of bacterial signaling or morphology at sub-MIC doses can serve as a predictive proxy for latent antibacterial potential. A three-stage screening cascade—combining biosensor- or phenotype-guided assays, specificity controls to minimize false positives, and stepwise dose escalation—may rescue bioactive compounds discarded by lethality-focused workflows. We discuss practical feasibility, integration with existing high-throughput platforms, criteria for biosensor selection, and approaches to quantify the expansion of chemical diversity. By framing sub-MIC modulation as a deliberate discovery filter, this hypothesis encourages cautious, resource-aware exploration of underutilized bioactive space.

Author: Maxwel A. Abegg

Author: Maxwel Adriano AbeggAffiliation: Institute of Exact Sciences and Technology (ICET), Graduate Program in Sciences, Technology and Health (PPGCTS), Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), Itacoatiara, Brazil ORCID: 0000-0002-0328-1122 Abstract Invasive fungal infections—Candida auris, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformans—carry 40–90% mortality in immunocompromised patients. We conducted an automated literature and web survey via ChatGPT o4-mini, generating 750 vector–linker–payload hypotheses. Applying stringent filters (RDKit SA ≤ 4; ≥ 90% stability at pH 7.4; t₁/₂ < 60 min under trigger; predicted docking) yielded 25 top-ranked antifungal conjugates. Although based solely on automated evaluation, we publish these designs to stimulate in vitro testing and future therapeutic development. We present mechanistic rationales, linker selection, synthetic outlines (expected yields: 15–40%), and validation assays (cytotoxicity, resistance induction, biofilm models) to guide experimental efforts.  Keywords: Antifungal Conjugates, Multitarget Drug Design, Artificial Intelligence in Drug Discovery, Fungal Pathogens, Vector–Linker–Payload Strategy, In Silico Screening

TitleA Propositional Approach for Genome-Guided Supplementation of Environmental Substrates to Induce Silent Biosynthetic Gene Clusters in ActinomycetesRunning TitlePropositional Activation of Silent BGCs via Genome-Guided ElicitorsAuthorMaxwel A. Abegg Institute of Exact Sciences and Technology (ICET), Graduate Program in Sciences, Technology and Health (PPGCTS), Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), Itacoatiara, Brazil ORCID: 0000-0002-0328-1122 | maxabegg@gmail.comAbstractThe pervasive transcriptional silence of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) in actinomycetes under standard laboratory conditions limits access to their full metabolic potential. We propose a conceptual, genome-guided protocol that uses comparative mining of both actinomycete genomes and genomes of co-occurring Gram-negative bacteria to identify with higher confidence which small molecules may activate silent BGCs. Mining the producer’s genome locates cluster-situated regulators (e.g., LuxR-like proteins) and identifies key enzymatic domains—such as NRPS adenylation domains—whose sequence features can be analyzed by specialized tools (e.g., NRPSpredictor2, SANDPUMA) to predict which amino acid substrates the cluster may incorporate. Simultaneously, mining competitor genomes uncovers their quorum-sensing and siderophore pathways (e.g., AHL synthases, enterobactin operons), indicating which interspecies signals are likely present in that habitat. By selecting elicitors—such as long-chain N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), enterobactin, sodium bromide, and L-tryptophan—that align with both the producer’s regulatory elements and competitors’ signals, we aim to target silent BGCs more effectively. Deployment of devices in supplemented, sterile substrates for 2–4 weeks is intended to recreate these ecological cues under controlled conditions, potentially facilitating discovery of novel secondary metabolites. This protocol remains untested in the field due to technical and financial constraints, but we present it conservatively to encourage exploration of new approaches for activating silent BGCs.Keywords: Actinomycetes; Biosynthetic Gene Clusters; Genome Mining; Chemical Elicitors; iChip; In Situ CultivationIntroductionActinomycetes harbor dozens of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) in their genomes, yet the majority of these clusters remain transcriptionally silent under conventional laboratory cultivation, leaving a vast reservoir of potentially novel natural products unexplored [1,2]. Genomic surveys indicate that a singleStreptomyces genome may encode 30–50 BGCs, but less than 10% of these are expressed when grown on standard agar or broth media [1,3]. This disconnect arises because laboratory media often lack key environmental signals—nutrient limitations, interspecies cues, or abiotic stresses—necessary to trigger cluster activation. Consequently, many actinomycete-derived metabolites remain undetected, hindering drug discovery efforts.Several approaches have been developed to awaken cryptic BGCs. Manipulating culture conditions via OSMAC (One Strain–Many Compounds) can reveal new metabolites by varying carbon, nitrogen, or trace element sources [3]. Co-cultivation with other microorganisms has been shown to stimulate interspecies signaling that derepresses silent clusters [4]. Genetic methods, including heterologous expression of regulatory genes or deletion of pathway repressors, have successfully refactored silent clusters [5]. Chemical elicitation, using small-molecule inducers such as subinhibitory antibiotics or epigenetic modifiers, has also unlocked cryptic pathways [6]. Despite these advances, identifying which environmental signals specifically activate a given BGC remains challenging, because most methods rely on trial-and-error screening of large elicitor libraries or extensive genetic manipulation. This gap motivates a more targeted, genome-guided strategy.Here, we propose a protocol to activate silent BGCs in actinomycetes by integrating comparative genome mining with rational selection of chemically stable, ecologically relevant elicitors and in situ cultivation. Specifically, we hypothesize that (1) genomic analysis of the producer strain can reveal cluster-situated regulators (e.g., LuxR-like proteins, two-component system sensors) and core enzymatic domains whose predicted substrate specificities guide precursor supplementation; (2) mining genomes of co-occurring Gram-negative bacteria identifies quorum-sensing and siderophore pathways that suggest interspecies signals present in the native habitat; and (3) by supplementing environmental matrices with elicitors aligned to both producer regulators and competitor signals—and incubating in diffusion chambers or iChips within sterile substrates—silent BGCs can be derepressed without extensive genetic manipulation. This targeted approach aims to reduce randomness in BGC activation, leveraging ecological context and bioinformatic predictions to focus on a smaller set of candidate elicitors.To perform the in silico analyses and manage data efficiently, we recommend the following software tools:antiSMASH : Annotates and predicts BGC regions within microbial genomes.DeepBGC : Uses machine-learning classifiers to detect BGCs not captured by traditional homology searches.CoreFinder : Refines functional annotations within BGCs by applying a context-aware protein-language model to recognize enzymatic domains (e.g., halogenases, methyltransferases).CHAMOIS : Translates Pfam domain annotations into predicted chemical scaffolds and precursor dependencies, thereby guiding elicitor selection.NRPSpredictor2 & SANDPUMA : Predict amino acid substrate specificity of NRPS adenylation domains by comparing signature residues against database profiles.BLAST : Identifies homologous genes in competitor genomes, such as quorum-sensing synthases (LuxI homologs) and outer membrane porins (OmpF/OprF).GNPS (Global Natural Products Social Molecular Networking) : Facilitates molecular networking of LC-MS/MS data to group related metabolites and highlight novel compounds.SIRIUS : Performs in silico fragmentation analysis for structural elucidation of unknown metabolites.These tools collectively enable genome mining, substrate-preference prediction, homolog identification, and metabolomic data interpretation, forming the computational backbone of our proposed protocol.Methodology1. Comparative Genome Mining and Elicitor Selection1.1 Producer Genome Analysis antiSMASH & DeepBGCAnnotate all BGC regions in the actinomycete genome, highlighting core enzymatic domains (e.g., ketosynthase, adenylation, precursor peptides) and cluster-situated regulators (e.g., LuxR-like transcription factors).CoreFinder & CHAMOISApply CoreFinder to refine functional annotation within each predicted BGC, confirming domains such as halogenases or methyltransferases.Use CHAMOIS to translate Pfam domain annotations into predicted chemical features (e.g., likely phenazine or siderophore scaffolds), thereby guiding which elicitors or precursors may be most relevant.NRPSpredictor2 / SANDPUMAFor each NRPS adenylation domain detected by antiSMASH/DeepBGC, analyze signature residues to infer the preferred amino acid substrate (e.g., L-tryptophan or L-phenylalanine).Record high-confidence predictions (probability ≥ 0.90) to inform precursor supplementation.1.2 Competitor Genome Analysis antiSMASH & DeepBGCScreen co-occurring Gram-negative genomes for quorum-sensing clusters (LuxI/LuxR homologs) and siderophore biosynthesis clusters (e.g., enterobactin operons).BLAST SearchesIdentify genes encoding outer membrane porins (e.g., OmpF, OprF) whose peptide fragments may mimic cell-envelope stress signals.Inference of Ecological SignalsPresence of a long-chain AHL synthase (e.g., 3-oxo-C12-HSL) indicates that corresponding AHLs are authentic interspecies signals in the producer’s habitat.Detection of an enterobactin operon suggests iron limitation is signaled by enterobactin, potentially activating siderophore BGCs in actinomycetes.Identification of porin genes implies that porin-derived peptides may trigger membrane-stress responsive clusters.Overlay of Producer and Competitor InsightsCross-reference cluster-situated regulators with competitor-derived signals to shortlist candidate elicitors that (a) have affinity for the actinomycete’s regulatory network and (b) emulate genuine environmental cues.2. Selection of Environmentally Relevant ElicitorsExamples of potential elicitors revealed by comparative genome analyses include:Long-Chain AHLs (e.g., 3-oxo-C12-HSL): Selected when competitor genomes encode corresponding AHL synthases; these molecules may cross-activate LuxR-like regulators in actinomycetes.Enterobactin : Emulates iron limitation; chosen if competitor genomes harbor enterobactin operons, potentially inducing siderophore BGCs in actinomycetes.Porin-Derived Peptides (10–15 amino acids from OmpF/OprF): Mimic outer membrane stress, potentially triggering stress-responsive BGCs.Sodium Bromide (NaBr) : Provides halide ions to support halogenase-containing BGCs predicted by CHAMOIS.Amino Acids (e.g., L-tryptophan, L-phenylalanine): Serve as precursors when NRPSpredictor2/SANDPUMA predict these as NRPS substrates.Alternative Carbon Sources (e.g., mannitol, trehalose): Maintain basal microbial growth without repressing secondary metabolism.Stock PreparationDissolve each elicitor in sterile water or buffer to prepare concentrated stocks (e.g., 10 mM AHL, 10 mM enterobactin, 100 mM NaBr, 100 mM amino acids).Matrix Sterilization and EnrichmentObtain an environmental matrix (e.g., leaf litter, humic soil, decomposed wood) and sterilize by autoclaving (121 °C, 20 min) to eliminate native microbial communities.Incorporate elicitor stocks into the sterile matrix at empirically determined final concentrations—e.g.:• 50 µM long-chain AHL • 1 mM enterobactin • 5 mM NaBr • 5 mM L-tryptophan • 1–2% (w/v) mannitol or trehaloseEquilibrate the supplemented matrix at ambient temperature for 12–24 h to ensure uniform distribution of elicitors.3. In Situ Cultivation Using Diffusion Chambers or iChipsDevice DescriptionDiffusion Chambers [14]: Two-part devices sealed with 0.03 µm semipermeable membranes that allow passive diffusion of small molecules from the environment into an agar-based inoculum.iChips [15]: High-throughput, multiwell devices, each well containing an individual cell or colony separated by semipermeable membranes; designed to replicate in situ conditions with minimal disturbance to native cues.Inoculum PreparationHarvest actinomycete spores or cells (10^4–10^6 CFU/mL) and suspend in 0.5–1% (w/v) agar or gellan-gum solution.Pipette ~5 µL of the inoculum into each diffusion chamber or iChip well.Seal wells with semipermeable membranes, ensuring airtight contact.DeploymentEmbed diffusion chambers or iChips within the elicitor-supplemented, sterile matrix, ensuring intimate contact between membrane and substrate.Maintain substrate moisture at ~40–60% water-holding capacity by periodic addition of sterile water; avoid waterlogging.Incubate devices in situ for 2–4 weeks (up to 30 days if needed). Position them in shaded or semi-shaded locations to prevent rapid desiccation and extreme temperatures. Since the substrate is sterile and enriched only with selected elicitors, any detected metabolites can be attributed to the inoculated producer.Downstream Applications4. Gene Expression MonitoringRNA Extraction & RT-qPCRRetrieve devices; aseptically recover agar/gellan-gum carriers containing cells.Disrupt carriers mechanically (e.g., bead beating) and extract total RNA using an RNA purification kit compatible with environmental samples.Treat RNA with DNase I to remove genomic DNA.Synthesize cDNA using random hexamer primers.Design primers targeting:• Core biosynthetic genes (e.g., ketosynthase domains in PKS, adenylation domains in NRPS). • Cluster-situated regulators (e.g., LuxR-like transcription factors).Place primers within –192 to –66 bp upstream of start codons, where transcription-factor binding is often concentrated.Normalize expression against housekeeping genes (e.g., rpoB, gyrA).Use the ΔΔCₜ method to compare expression levels in elicited versus control samples, thereby assessing whether silent BGCs exhibit upregulated transcription. Because the substrate is sterile, background expression from contaminating microbes is minimized, yielding more accurate relative quantification of the producer’s transcripts.5. Metabolite Detection and ProfilingLC-HRMSExtract metabolites from carriers and surrounding matrix using organic solvents (e.g., methanol, ethyl acetate).Concentrate extracts under reduced pressure and reconstitute in an LC-MS–compatible solvent (e.g., 50% acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid).Analyze extracts on a high-resolution LC-MS system, employing gradients optimized for separation of polyketides, nonribosomal peptides, and small polar compounds.Compare induced versus uninduced chromatograms to identify novel peaks corresponding to elicited metabolites.Utilize GNPS for molecular networking and SIRIUS (or similar tools) for in silico fragmentation, proposing structures guided by CHAMOIS-predicted formulas. Because the substrate began as sterile and only the inoculated actinomycete contributes metabolites, any new mass features likely represent elicitor-driven products.MALDI-TOF MSSpot crude extracts onto a MALDI plate with an appropriate matrix (e.g., α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid).Acquire mass spectra to rapidly screen for new mass features indicative of elicited compounds. Minimal substrate background facilitates detection of low-abundance producer-derived ions.ConclusionThis technical framework outlines a conceptually grounded approach—based on comparative genome mining—to select ecologically relevant elicitors and deploy diffusion chambers or iChips in sterile, supplemented substrates, thereby recreating native environmental cues under controlled conditions that favor direct comparison of metabolite expression. By identifying cluster-situated regulators and predicted substrate specificities in actinomycete genomes, alongside quorum-sensing and siderophore pathways in competitor bacteria, one can assemble a targeted elicitor suite. Devices such as diffusion chambers and iChips offer minimally invasive, in situ cultivation platforms to test these elicitor combinations. Sterilizing the environmental matrix ensures that observed metabolites arise from the inoculated producer, simplifying downstream analyses. Ultimately, careful validation of this framework could broaden access to cryptic secondary metabolites and inspire new avenues for natural product discovery.ReferencesRui S, Fengrui G, Zhang Y, et al. Biological activity of secondary metabolites of actinomycetes and their potential sources as antineoplastic drugs: a review. Front Microbiol. 2025 May;16:1550516. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2025.1550516.Coelho LP, Alves R, Rodríguez del Río Á, et al. Towards the biogeography of prokaryotic genes. 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Antibody-Targeted Microbubbles for Gram-Negative Efflux Inhibition: A Conceptual Theranostic PlatformMaxwel Adriano AbeggInstitute of Exact Sciences and Technology (ICET), Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), Itacoatiara, Amazonas, Brazil Email: maxabegg@gmail.com ORCID: 0000-0002-0328-1122AbstractGram-negative bacteria possess sophisticated defense systems, notably outer membrane efflux pumps such as AcrAB–TolC, which expel antibiotics and contribute to multidrug resistance. We propose a conceptual theranostic platform that integrates antibody-functionalized microbubbles targeted to bacterial efflux proteins with ultrasound-triggered cavitation. This system enables mechanical poration of bacterial membranes at efflux sites, facilitating antibiotic influx while concurrently serving as a contrast agent for ultrasound imaging. The approach combines targeted delivery, membrane disruption, and diagnostic feedback through contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), offering a new paradigm for localized antimicrobial therapy. This manuscript reviews the mechanistic rationale, supporting evidence, potential challenges, and translational prospects for this integrated strategy.Keywords: Gram-negative bacteria, efflux pumps, sonoporation, microbubbles, theranostics, ultrasound imaging, antibiotic resistance.1. IntroductionMultidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative pathogens, includingPseudomonas aeruginosa , Acinetobacter baumannii , and Enterobacteriaceae, constitute a critical global health threat (World Health Organization, 2017). These bacteria deploy multifaceted defense systems: impermeable outer membranes (OM), active efflux pumps, and biofilm formation that synergistically obstruct antibiotic penetration and efficacy (Silhavy et al., 2010). Among these, efflux pumps such as AcrAB–TolC are particularly formidable, providing a continuous conduit from cytoplasm to extracellular space, extruding a broad range of antibiotics (Lebeaux et al., 2014). Conventional therapeutic approaches struggle to overcome these barriers. Recent advances in ultrasound-mediated microbubble technology—originally developed for contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging—have demonstrated potential in antimicrobial therapy. Sonoporation, the mechanical disruption of membranes via ultrasound-induced microbubble cavitation, enhances drug delivery to bacterial cells (Lattwein et al., 2020). We propose leveraging these technologies to develop a theranostic platform: antibody-functionalized microbubbles targeted to efflux proteins, activated by focused ultrasound to physically compromise bacterial defenses while simultaneously providing diagnostic imaging via CEUS.2. Conceptual Framework2.1 Platform ComponentsThe proposed platform integrates:Targeted microbubbles: Gas-filled spheres (~1–4 µm) stabilized by lipid or protein shells and conjugated with antibodies or nanobodies specific to efflux proteins such as TolC.Focused ultrasound: Applied externally to induce microbubble cavitation, generating mechanical forces capable of porating bacterial membranes.Antibiotic delivery: Facilitated either by enhanced permeability to systemically administered drugs or by direct co-loading of antibiotics within microbubble shells.Diagnostic imaging: Using CEUS to localize infection sites, monitor microbubble accumulation, and assess therapeutic response in real time.2.2 Mechanism of ActionUpon administration, targeted microbubbles selectively bind to bacterial efflux proteins exposed on the OM, such as TolC. Focused ultrasound triggers microbubble oscillation and cavitation, producing localized shear forces, microjets, and shockwaves that mechanically disrupt the OM at efflux sites (Zhu et al., 2014). This transient poration enables antibiotic influx, overcoming intrinsic resistance mechanisms. Simultaneously, microbubble destruction generates enhanced ultrasound contrast, enabling real-time visualization of infection sites and therapeutic monitoring through CEUS (Klibanov, 2010; Wilson & Burns, 2010).3. Supporting Evidence3.1 Efflux Proteins as Viable TargetsEfflux complexes like AcrAB–TolC are essential for Gram-negative resistance. TolC, in particular, is immunogenic; anti-TolC antibodies enhance macrophage phagocytosis and bacterial clearance (Silva et al., 2024). Nanobodies have been engineered to bind and stabilize specific membrane protein conformations (Dmitriev et al., 2016), potentially facilitating binding to TolC in its transient semi-open state during efflux activity.3.2 Microbubble-Mediated SonoporationUltrasound-activated microbubbles generate potent mechanical effects at the nanoscale. Zhu et al. (2014) demonstrated that in E. coli , microbubble cavitation produces membrane pores and facilitates drug transport. LuTheryn et al. (2022) reported similar findings in P. aeruginosa biofilms, where nitric-oxide-loaded microbubbles combined with ultrasound achieved >99% biomass reduction.3.3 Enhanced Antibiotic DeliveryHorsley et al. (2019) showed that ultrasound-activated microbubbles improved gentamicin delivery ~16-fold in a human bladder infection model. In biofilm-associated infections, ultrasound combined with microbubbles and antibiotics reduced bacterial burden by Furthermore, Xiu et al. (2023) utilized catalytic microbubbles in a murine lung infection model, achieving biofilm disruption and therapeutic cure.3.4 Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS)Clinically, CEUS is already applied to localize infections, delineate abscesses, and monitor therapy, e.g., in pyelonephritis (Boccatonda et al., 2024) and renal abscesses (Pšeničny et al., 2022). The proposed platform extends this capability through molecular targeting of bacterial antigens, enabling theranostic imaging.4. Integrated Theranostic StrategyBy combining targeted microbubble binding, ultrasound-mediated mechanical poration, and CEUS, the platform achieves:Specific targeting: Antibody-guided localization to bacterial efflux proteins.Physical disruption: Focused ultrasound-induced cavitation at the bacterial OM.Enhanced delivery: Facilitated antibiotic entry at otherwise impermeable sites.Real-time monitoring: CEUS imaging for localization and therapeutic assessment.5. Potential Challenges5.1 Targeting SpecificityBroadly conserved antigens (e.g., LPS-core) may result in off-target effects on commensal bacteria. Pathogen-specific virulence factors or dual-targeting strategies incorporating inflammatory markers may improve specificity.5.2 Microbubble Delivery and StabilityMicrobubbles primarily remain intravascular, limiting penetration into poorly vascularized infections. Potential solutions include local injection, use of phase-change nanodroplets, or acoustic radiation force to improve delivery (Reznik et al., 2014).5.3 Ultrasound SafetyWhile cavitation facilitates poration, excessive acoustic energy may damage host tissues. Optimizing ultrasound parameters is critical to maximize bacterial disruption while preserving tissue integrity.5.4 Manufacturing and RegulationDeveloping GMP-grade antibody-functionalized microbubbles presents technical and regulatory challenges. However, the widespread clinical use of CEUS agents provides a feasible starting point.6. Experimental Validation StrategyAn in vitro proof-of-concept includes:Microbubble preparation: Lipid-stabilized, antibody-conjugated microbubbles characterized by size and binding specificity.Bacterial models: Planktonic and biofilm cultures of E. coli and P. aeruginosa .Sonoporation assessment: Using propidium iodide uptake and electron microscopy to visualize membrane disruption.Antibiotic potentiation: Evaluating bacterial killing with sub-inhibitory antibiotics in combination with ultrasound and microbubbles.CEUS imaging: Demonstrating targeted microbubble localization and monitoring sonoporation in real time.Subsequent in vivo studies in murine or porcine infection models will assess therapeutic efficacy, biodistribution, and safety.7. Comparative AdvantagesCompared to phage therapy, nanoparticle delivery, or anti-biofilm agents, this platform uniquely integrates:Mechanical poration via ultrasound.Molecular targeting through antibody-functionalized microbubbles.Real-time imaging via CEUS.Potential for broad-spectrum application across multiple Gram-negative pathogens.8. Future DirectionsRefinement of targeting ligands for enhanced specificity.Exploration of co-delivery with phages or immunomodulators.Development of standardized clinical kits integrating microbubbles and ultrasound presets.Expansion to other pathogens and infection types.9. ConclusionThis conceptual theranostic platform offers a novel solution to the challenge of treating MDR Gram-negative infections. By focusing cavitation-induced mechanical forces at bacterial efflux sites, the system enhances antibiotic permeability and efficacy. Simultaneously, CEUS provides diagnostic imaging and treatment monitoring. Integrating established technologies in a new configuration, this strategy aligns with precision medicine paradigms and holds promise for improving outcomes in difficult-to-treat infections.Conflict of Interest StatementThe author declares no conflicts of interest regarding this manuscript.Funding StatementThis research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.Data Availability StatementNo experimental datasets were generated or analyzed during this study, as it represents a conceptual framework proposal.Author ContributionMAA conceived the conceptual framework, prepared and wrote the manuscript, critically revised the content, and approved the final version for submission.Ethical StatementNot applicable, as the manuscript does not involve human or animal research.Author’s NoteThe author utilized ChatGPT, an AI language model developed by OpenAI, for assistance in refining the manuscript’s language. All conceptual ideas and interpretations are original contributions of the author.ReferencesBoccatonda, A., Stupia, R., & Serra, C. (2024). Ultrasound, contrast-enhanced ultrasound and pyelonephritis: a narrative review.World Journal of Nephrology , 13(3), 98300. Dmitriev, O. Y., Lutsenko, S., & Muyldermans, S. (2016). Nanobodies as Probes for Protein Dynamics in Vitro and in Cells. J Biol Chem , 291(8), 3767-75. Dong, Y., et al. (2018). Synergistic antibacterial effect of ultrasound microbubbles combined with antibiotics on Escherichia coli biofilm. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry , 40, 263–269. Horsley, H., et al. (2019). Ultrasound-activated microbubbles as a novelintracellular drug delivery system for urinary tract infection.J Control Release , 301, 166-175. Klibanov, A. L. (2010). Targeted microbubbles: Ultrasound contrast agents for molecular imaging and therapy. J Nucl Med , 51(3), 433–436. Lattwein, K. R., et al. (2020). 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R., & Burns, P. N. (2010). Microbubble-enhanced US in body imaging. Radiology , 257(1), 24–39. World Health Organization. (2017). WHO publishes list of bacteria for which new antibiotics are urgently needed. Xiu, W., et al. (2023). Ultrasound-responsive catalytic microbubbles enhance biofilm elimination and immune activation to treat chronic lung infections. Sci Adv , 9(4), eade5446. Zhu, H. X., et al. (2014). Microbubble-mediated ultrasound enhances the lethal effect of gentamicin on planktonic Escherichia coli .Biomed Res Int , 2014, 142168.