Wnt - β-catenin pathway
Wnt-β-catenin pathway is a signaling cascade crucial for cell fate determination and stem cell maintenance (Zhang & Wang, 2020). Dysregulated GPCR signaling can induce abnormal activation of Wnt-β-catenin signaling, which supports the properties of cancer stem cells and accelerates tumor growth (Nag et al. , 2018).

2.4 GPCR signaling in cancer immune response

Apart from cancer cell behavior, the absence or presence of immune response is an important factor that determines the progression of cancer. The following section introduces key GPCRs that have been identified to have impact on cancer immune response.