Large carnivores are considered necessary for the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem services, i.e. benefits provided to humans. However, bears do not always fit the definition of carnivores in their habitat, having divers foraging strategies. The results of this literature review supported the crucial role played by all bear species in providing a diverse array of ecosystem services. While bears from North America and Europe have been extensively studied, species from South America and Southeast Asia have received relatively less attention. The main benefits derived from bears encompass recreation and cultural value, while also contributing to biodiversity maintenance through seed dispersal and forest shaping as ecosystem engineers. However, knowledge gaps persist regarding the ecosystem services provided by bears with tropical distributions. The economic impact of the Ecosystem services provided by bears is reported in a minority of works, with limited transferability, but globally recreation revenues largely exceed those related to hunting. Limitations such as resource constraints, social dynamics, and restricted access to remote areas call for future more interdisciplinary research in general and especially on tropical bear species.

Mast seeding, the variable and intermittent production of seeds, has cascading effects on ecosystem functioning. This study explores its influence on the brown bear populations in the Italian Alps, focusing on beechnuts (Fagus sylvatica L.), the primary food source for bears in the region. Using historical data and field sampling we estimated and mapped the annual seed biomass from 2007 to 2021 for the province of Trento. The energy content of beechnuts was assessed through high heating values (HHV), providing the caloric resources available. Data on beechnuts production, records of damages and GPS data from 16 Eurasian brown bears, were integrated to perform a temporal and spatial analysis at home range and at landscape level. Standardised damages to beehive and livestock decreased during mast years, suggesting that bears met their trophic needs through natural food sources. In fact, bears used more agricultural areas and less beech forest during years of crop failure then in mast years. At landscape level, agriculture and pasture areas, close to beech forests and distant from cities showed higher risk of damage providing a tool to anticipate management actions.. This work provides insights on the ecological dynamics and conservation implications of brown bear in the study area by mapping the spatial and temporal aspects of mast seeding and bear related damages.