REFERENCES
1. Caliendo V, Lewis NS, Pohlmann A, et al. Transatlantic spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 by wild birds from Europe to North America in 2021. Scientific Reports 2022;12:11729.2. Plaza, Gamarra-Toledo V, Euguí JR, Lambertucci SA. Recent changes in patterns of mammal infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus worldwide. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2024;30:444.3. WAHIS. WAHIS. May 2024. Available from: https://wahis.woah.org/#/home.4. Gamarra-Toledo V, Plaza PI, Angulo F, et al. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) strongly impacts wild birds in Peru. Biological Conservation 2023;286:110272.5. Wille M, Klaassen M. No evidence for HPAI H5N1 2.3. 4.4 b incursion into Australia in 2022. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 2023;17.6. Wille M, Atkinson R, Barr IG, et al. Long‐Distance Avian Migrants Fail to Bring 2.3.4.4b HPAI H5N1 Into Australia for a Second Year in a Row. Influenza Resp Viruses 2024;18:e13281.7. Kumar P, Sharma A, Apostolopoulos V, Gaidhane AM, Satapathy P. Australia’s first human case of H5N1 and the current H7 poultry outbreaks: implications for public health and biosecurity measures. The Lancet Regional Health–Western Pacific 2024;48.8. SCAR. The Scientific Commitee on Antartic Research (SCAR). 2024. Available from: http://sscacar.org/library-data/avian-flu.9. Lumbierres M, Dahal PR, Soria CD, et al. Area of Habitat maps for the world’s terrestrial birds and mammals. Scientific Data 2022;9:749.10. BirdLife International. Bird species distribution maps of the world. Version 2023.1. Available from: http://datazone.birdlife. Bird species distribution maps of the world 2023.11. Moilanen A, Lehtinen P, Kohonen I, Jalkanen J, Virtanen EA, Kujala H. Novel methods for spatial prioritization with applications in conservation, land use planning and ecological impact avoidance. Methods Ecol Evol 2022;13:1062-1072.12.Birds of the World. Cornell Lab Birds of the world. Available from: https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/home. Published 2024.13. Weimerskirch H, Cherel Y, Delord K, Jaeger A, Patrick SC, Riotte-Lambert L. Lifetime foraging patterns of the wandering albatross: life on the move! Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 2014;450:68-78.14. Plaza, Gamarra-Toledo V, Euguí JR, Rosciano N, Lambertucci SA. Pacific and Atlantic sea lion mortality caused by highly pathogenic Avian Influenza A (H5N1) in South America. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 2024;59:102712.15. Weimerskirch H, Delord K, Guitteaud A, Phillips RA, Pinet P. Extreme variation in migration strategies between and within wandering albatross populations during their sabbatical year and their fitness consequences. Scientific reports 2015;5:8853.
FIGURE 1: Global risk maps of H5N1 infection based on the distribution range of wild bird species reported as infected between 2020 and 2024 in all continents except Oceania (where the virus is still absent): high risk (red) and low risk (blue). A) Map of risk including the distribution range of Brown skuas (Stercorarius antarcticus ), South Polar skuas (Stercorarius maccormicki ), Wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans ) and Giant petrels (Macronectes giganteus ), species that already tested positive to H5N1 and move all throughout the Southern Ocean Flyway. Brown points indicate suspected and confirmed H5N1 cases in various wild bird species from October 2023 to November 2024, black points positive cases between 2021 and 2023 in Southern Africa, while red points represent new suspected cases (based on high mortalities and symptoms) on Marion Island and Île de la Possession detected between September and November 2024. Bird silhouettes represent approximate movement patterns of Wandering Albatrosses based on Weimerskirch et al. 2014, 201513,15. B) Map of H5N1 risk in Oceania based on the species infected in other regions of the world. Coastal areas, particularly in the southern region, are at higher risk due to the presence of species reported as infected in other parts of the world, particularly the species using the Southern Ocean Flyway.