S.No. Treatment Technique Target Emerging Contaminant Removal Efficiency Advantages Drawbacks Reference
1. Aerobic a)Granular sludge b)MBR Roxithromycin 17a-ethinylestradiol 95.2% 93% High quality effluent, short hydraulic retention time (HRT), long solid retention time (SRT), high volumetric loading rate Requires more frequent routine maintenance; May release more nitrates to groundwater Yu et al.,(2020) Nguyen et al.,(2014); Shahid et al.,(2021)
2. Anaerobic a)Sludge b)AnMBR Ciprofloxacin Erythromycin 85% 86% Production of biomethane gas, less sludge, better at dealing with slurries with higher solid content less efficient for hydrophilic and toxic emerging contaminants Carneiro et al., (2020); Dutta et al.,(2014) Phan et al., 2018);
3. Activated Carbon adsorption a)Powdered b)Granulated 17-Alphaethylestradiol Metoprolol 83.3% 95% High CEC removal, No formation of by-products, Full scale evidence on practicability, Additional DOC removal Production needs high energy, Adsorption capacity may fluctuate with each batch, Rizzo et al.,(2019); Sun et al.,(2017); Karelid et al.,(2017)
4. Biochar Assisted Adsorption (from tea waste) Sulfamethazine 33.81mg/g lower production costs, ability to remove contaminants like heavy metals, EDCs High energy and chemical consumption, process complexity Rajapaksha et al.,(2014); Zhao et al., 2016); Enaime et al.,(2020)
5. Clay Minerals Assisted Adsorption (modified zeolites) fluoroquinolones 99% Cation exchange capacity and surface area can be modified, abundance in nature Low thermal stability, Regeneration issues Maraschi et al., (2014); Chouikhi et al.,(2019)
6. Hydrothermal Carbonization Pb(II), ciprofloxacin 119.61 98.38 mg/g Conservation of energy, utilization of organic waste Environmental concerns, Regulatory challenges Qin et al.,(2023); Ischia et al.,(2024)
7. Coagulation – Flocculation Acetaminophen, Diclofenac < 20% effective in removing some hydrophobic pharmaceuticals, removal of musky compounds Temperature sensitivity, high dosage requirement, excessive sludge production Westerhoff et al.,(2005); Pilliai and thombre.,(2023)
8. Advanced Oxidation Processes Sulfamethoxazole > 90% Conversion into less hazardous and more biodegradable compounds High operational costs, complexity Reungoat et al.,(2011); Deng ad Zhao., (2015)
9. Ozonation a)single b)catalytic Ibuprofen (IBU) 26% 90% Partial disinfection, Lower energy demand compared to UV/ H2O2 and membranes Formation of by-products (NDMA, bromate), Need for a subsequent biological treatment Bing et al.,(2015); Rizzo et al.,(2019)
10. Chlorination 17α-estradiol, Estriol > 90% Maintains water quality, cost effectiveness Corrosiveness, handling and safety concerns Westerhoff et al.,(2005); (57); (58)
11. UV Irradiation Tetracyclines, Fluoroquinolones 80–95% Use of solar irradiation, Effective as disinfection process too Low kinetics, Formation of oxidation transformation products, Catalyst removal Kim et al.,(2009); Rizzo et al.,(2019)
12. Nanofilteration Amoxicillin 99% useful for getting rid of drugs, substances that cause hormone disruption Chemical resistance, limited lifetime of membranes Oulebsir et al.,(2020); Hilal et al., 2004; Bruggen et al.,(2008)