With the continuous deterioration of the environment and people’s pursuit of quality of life, a variety of filtration and adsorption materials have been developed to deal with waste gas, wastewater, and other pollutants generated from industry and life. Among the filtration and adsorption materials, fiber filter materials have gradually become the focus of research due to their environmentally friendly and reusable properties. Herein, a complete overview of the latest advances in the fabrication and functionalization of fiber filter materials for pollution treatment applications was provided. The classification and mechanism of fiber-based filter materials such as physical filtering, chemical filtering and biological filtering are introduced. Also, the fabrication technologies of fiber filter materials (including spinning technology, surface modification method, 3D printing, and molecular self-assembly approach) are described as well as their advantages and disadvantages are analyzed. The practical applications of pollution treatment including air purification, water treatment, separation of chemicals, and biological applications are illustrated in detail with various existing research typical examples. Finally, the tough challenges and future considerations for fiber filter materials are critically analyzed, aiming to implement them in real applications.