General conclusions
The two studied butterflies species, A. mantiqueira and A. alalia , are genetically isolated entities, and the barcode molecular marker was unsuited to delimit them. The genomic data and niche modeling point to an allopatric speciation process between montane regions, in which Pleistocene climatic variation created a discontinuity of suitable habitat among the ancestral populations of the Atlantic Forest’s South and Southeast regions. During glacial periods, the Serra do Mar mountain range may have been a dispersal route between populations in the South and Southeast that are currently disconnected. There is a low gene flow between the populations of A. mantiqueira in the two montane regions of the Southeast, the Serra do Mar and the Serra da Mantiqueira, evidencing that the valleys between these mountain ranges are effective barriers for the dispersal of this species. According to the findings of this study, topography and climatic variation played an important role in Actinote butterfly diversification.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) grants 2015/24663-4, 2018/11591-3, 2023/10376-0 (LMM), 2018/19171-3, 2021/07494-5 (PEG), 2021/03868-8, 2023/01459-9 (AVLF), 2012/16266-7 and 2013/10491-1 (KLSB); Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES): Financial code 001 (LMM and PEG); Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) grants 151166/2023-4 (LMM), 421248/2017-3, 304291/2020-0 (AVLF), “RedeLep – Rede Nacional de Pesquisa e Conservação de Lepidópteros” – SISBIOTA-Brasil/CNPq (563332/2010-7). We thank Augusto Henrique Batista Rosa, André Tacioli​ and Junia Yasmin Oliveira Carreira for collecting samples for this study. The present study is registered at the SISGEN (AF38F6E).
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