Beta were estimated from linear mixed regression models for repeated data (random effect on individuals) with IgG level as dependent variable and time between the two surveys (year), age at first survey (continuous), sex, BMI (continuous), season of blood sampling (4 seasons), tobacco (passive in EGEA1, active in EGEA2), allergic sensitization, ever-asthma as predictors.

1. Troeger C, Blacker B, Khalil IA, Rao PC, Cao J, Zimsen SRM et al. Estimates of the global, regional, and national morbidity, mortality, and aetiologies of lower respiratory infections in 195 countries, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Infect Dis 2018;18 :1191–1210.

2. Hansel TT, Johnston SL, Openshaw PJ. Microbes and mucosal immune responses in asthma. The Lancet 2013;381 :861–873.

3. Carroll KN, Wu P, Gebretsadik T, Griffin MR, Dupont WD, Mitchel EF et al. The severity-dependent relationship of infant bronchiolitis on the risk and morbidity of early childhood asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;123 :1055-1061.e1.

4. Feldman AS, He Y, Moore ML, Hershenson MB, Hartert TV. Toward Primary Prevention of Asthma. Reviewing the Evidence for Early-Life Respiratory Viral Infections as Modifiable Risk Factors to Prevent Childhood Asthma.Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015;191 :34–44.

5. Rubner FJ, Jackson DJ, Evans MD, Gangnon RE, Tisler CJ, Pappas TE et al. Early life rhinovirus wheezing, allergic sensitization, and asthma risk at adolescence. J Allergy Clin Immunol2017;139 :501–507.

6. Jartti T, Gern JE. Role of viral infections in the development and exacerbation of asthma in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol2017;140 :895–906.

7. Fujiogi M, Dumas O, Hasegawa K, Jartti T, Camargo CA. Identifying and predicting severe bronchiolitis profiles at high risk for developing asthma: Analysis of three prospective cohorts. eClinicalMedicine2022;43 :101257.

8. Rosas-Salazar C, Chirkova T, Gebretsadik T, Chappell JD, Peebles RS, Dupont WD et al. Respiratory syncytial virus infection during infancy and asthma during childhood in the USA (INSPIRE): a population-based, prospective birth cohort study. Lancet2023;401 :1669–1680.

9. Heymann PW, Kennedy JL. Rhinovirus-induced asthma exacerbations during childhood: The importance of understanding the atopic status of the host. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012;130 :1315–1316.

10. von Linstow M-L, Høgh M, Nordbø SA, Eugen-Olsen J, Koch A, Høgh B. A community study of clinical traits and risk factors for human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus infection during the first year of life. Eur J Pediatr 2008;167 :1125–1133.

11. Omenaas E, Bakke P, Haukenes Q, Hanoa R, Gulsvik A. Respiratory Virus Antibodies in Adults of a Norwegian Community: Prevalences and Risk Factors. Int J Epidemiol 1995;24 :223–231.

12. Crothers K, Daly KR, Rimland D, Goetz MB, Gibert CL, Butt AA et al. Decreased Serum Antibody Responses to Recombinant PneumocystisAntigens in HIV-Infected and Uninfected Current Smokers. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2011;18 :380–386.

13. Niespodziana K, Stenberg-Hammar K, Megremis S, Cabauatan CR, Napora-Wijata K, Vacal PC et al. PreDicta chip-based high resolution diagnosis of rhinovirus-induced wheeze. Nat Commun2018;9 :2382.

14. Choi T, Devries M, Bacharier LB, Busse W, Camargo CA, Cohen R et al. Enhanced Neutralizing Antibody Responses to Rhinovirus C and Age-Dependent Patterns of Infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med2021;203 :822–830.

15. Esquivel A, Busse WW, Calatroni A, Togias AG, Grindle KG, Bochkov YA et al. Effects of Omalizumab on Rhinovirus Infections, Illnesses, and Exacerbations of Asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med2017;196 :985–992.

16. Kauffmann F, Dizier MH. EGEA (Epidemiological study on the Genetics and Environment of Asthma, bronchial hyperresponsiveness and atopy)–design issues. EGEA Co-operative Group. Clin Exp Allergy 1995;25 Suppl 2 :19–22.

17. Deng S, Guo L, Cohen C, Meijer A, Moyes J, Pasittungkul S et al. Impact of subgroup distribution on seasonality of human respiratory syncytial virus: A global systematic analysis. J Infect Dis2023;:jiad192.

18. Moriyama M, Hugentobler WJ, Iwasaki A. Seasonality of Respiratory Viral Infections. Annu Rev Virol 2020;7 :83–101.

19. Borochova K, Niespodziana K, Stenberg Hammar K, Van Hage M, Hedlin G, Söderhäll C et al. Features of the Human Antibody Response against the Respiratory Syncytial Virus Surface Glycoprotein G. Vaccines2020;8 :337.

20. Niespodziana K, Stenberg-Hammar K, Papadopoulos NG, Focke-Tejkl M, Errhalt P, Konradsen JR et al. Microarray Technology May Reveal the Contribution of Allergen Exposure and Rhinovirus Infections as Possible Triggers for Acute Wheezing Attacks in Preschool Children.Viruses 2021;13 :915.

21. Peterson RA, Cavanaugh JE. Ordered quantile normalization: a semiparametric transformation built for the cross-validation era.J Appl Stat 2020;47 :2312–2327.

22. Stenberg-Hammar K, Niespodziana K, Söderhäll C, James A, Cabauatan CR, Konradsen JR et al. Rhinovirus-specific antibody responses in preschool children with acute wheeze reflect severity of respiratory symptoms. Allergy 2016;71 :1728–1735.

23. Sallard E, Niespodziana K, Bajic M, Schlederer T, Errhalt P, Behrendt A-K et al. Microarray-Based Analyses of Rhinovirus Species-Specific Antibody Responses in Exacerbated Pediatric Asthma in a German Pediatric Cohort. Viruses 2022;14 :1857.

24. Klein SL, Flanagan KL. Sex differences in immune responses.Nat Rev Immunol 2016;16 :626–638.

25. Jacobsen H, Klein SL. Sex Differences in Immunity to Viral Infections. Front Immunol 2021;12 :720952.

26. Taneja V. Sex Hormones Determine Immune Response. Front Immunol 2018;9 :1931.

27. De Heredia FP, Gómez-Martínez S, Marcos A. Obesity, inflammation and the immune system. Proc Nutr Soc 2012;71 :332–338.

28. Hameed M, Geerling E, Pinto AK, Miraj I, Weger-Lucarelli J. Immune response to arbovirus infection in obesity. Front Immunol2022;13 :968582.

29. Fang X, Henao-Mejia J, Henrickson SE. Obesity and immune status in children. Curr Opin Pediatr 2020;32 :805–815.

30. Shukla SD, Mahmood MQ, Weston S, Latham R, Muller HK, Sohal SS et al. The main rhinovirus respiratory tract adhesion site (ICAM-1) is upregulated in smokers and patients with chronic airflow limitation (CAL). Respir Res 2017;18 :6.

31. Takizawa H, Tanaka M, Takami K, Ohtoshi T, Ito K, Satoh M et al. Increased expression of inflammatory mediators in small-airway epithelium from tobacco smokers. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2000;278 :L906–L913.

32. Waltl EE, Selb R, Eckl-Dorna J, Mueller CA, Cabauatan CR, Eiwegger T et al. Betamethasone prevents human rhinovirus- and cigarette smoke- induced loss of respiratory epithelial barrier function. Sci Rep2018;8 :9688.

33. Obando-Pacheco P, Justicia-Grande AJ, Rivero-Calle I, Rodríguez-Tenreiro C, Sly P, Ramilo O et al. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Seasonality: A Global Overview. J Infect Dis2018;217 :1356–1364.

34. Lee W-M, Lemanske RF, Evans MD, Vang F, Pappas T, Gangnon R et al. Human Rhinovirus Species and Season of Infection Determine Illness Severity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012;186 :886–891.

35. Andeweg SP, Schepp RM, Van De Kassteele J, Mollema L, Berbers GAM, Van Boven M. Population-based serology reveals risk factors for RSV infection in children younger than 5 years. Sci Rep2021;11 :8953.

36. Baker RE, Mahmud AS, Wagner CE, Yang W, Pitzer VE, Viboud C et al. Epidemic dynamics of respiratory syncytial virus in current and future climates. Nat Commun 2019;10 :5512.

37. Du Prel J, Puppe W, Gröndahl B, Knuf M, Weigl JAI, Schaaff F et al. Are Meteorological Parameters Associated with Acute Respiratory Tract Infections? Clin Infect Dis 2009;49 :861–868.

38. Johnsen MG, Christiansen LE, Græsbøll K. Seasonal variation in the transmission rate of covid-19 in a temperate climate can be implemented in epidemic population models by using daily average temperature as a proxy for seasonal changes in transmission rate. Microb Risk Anal2022;22 :100235.

39. Tang JW, Loh TP. Correlations between climate factors and incidence-a contributor to RSV seasonality: Climate factors and RSV infections. Rev Med Virol 2014;24 :15–34.

40. Griffith GJ, Morris TT, Tudball MJ, Herbert A, Mancano G, Pike L et al. Collider bias undermines our understanding of COVID-19 disease risk and severity. Nat Commun 2020;11 :5749.