Note: Nanoelectronics technology has dedicated some very exciting materials to improve the sensing phenomenon.  The use of various nanomaterials, including nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanotubes, and nanowires, causes faster identification and reproducibility in a much better way.The unique properties of nanomaterials such as high electrical conductivity, better shock tolerance,  and sensitive responses such as versatile piezo-electric and color detection mechanisms are only results of the multitude of properties of nanomaterials.  Different types of biosensors are propagated based on different types of nanomaterials and their developmental and implicit aspects. Measurement of biological responses  has assumed great importance  in the current scenario of ever-dynamic environmental developments and altered hemostatic events occurring at the  in vivo  as well as  intracorporeal level  .  Analyzing the behavior of changing materials is of great importance in areas such as pharmaceutical diagnostics, food quality screening, and environmental applications.

Note: In the construction of electrochemical nano-biosensors, the minimum parts used in a biosensor are: layer recognition molecular and signal transducer that can transmit this signal to a device (device readout). Are connected.DNA is usually a good tool as a biosensor because the base-pairing reaction between complementary play sequences is both specific and stable. In this case, the single-stranded probe DNA is immobilized on the detection layer and then reacts with the probe on the surface by pairing the target DNA. The duplication and uniqueness of DNA structures determines their accumulation on the surface. It is on  this surface that the target DNA is captured and a signal is generated. Therefore, immobilizing the nucleic acid of the probe  while maintaining its initial adhesion strength is important for detecting target DNA. But how this diagnostic procedure  is measured depends on the method of the transduction signal, which may be optical, mechanical, or  electrochemical.Optical biosensors based on fluorescent light have features. These types of biosensors are sensitive to molecules per square centimeter. They are made up of rows that are که so that their detection limit is made up of almost  thousands of probes. Because the tools in this field (fluorescence biosensor) are complex and expensive . Gene chips technology is more suitable for laboratory work. Gene chips are appropriate in cases where a lot of work needs  to be done at the same time, such as profiling transcriptional examination or discovery of single nucleotide polymorphism, but clinical diagnoses usually require the collection of this large amount of data. What is important for molecular detection is capability Ensure recognition as well as generality regardless of the order of the game. Therefore, gene chips are not preferred for clinical diagnosis for  reasons such as: they are expensive and the device is complex. Also, for other specific reasons, reading accuracy is  reduced. Another method for measuring the signal optically is the Resonance Plamon Surface method. In this method, the refractive index of a thin metal film substrate is changed, which is due to the adsorption of  analyte and is suitable for detecting the target in cases where the house is a groove groove. Because  in this way we can achieve the target molecule where the detection limit, causing the signal to the hybridization signal  strengthened. This can be done by increasing the amount of material that is on the surface of the film before or after attaching toIncreased target DNA. The resonant Plus surface method (SPR) is similar to the expensive and complex fluorescence method, which is why it is so expensive and complex that it is used more for research than for routine diagnostic work  ; One method of measuring the signal by light, which is very clear, is the light reading method, in which single-stranded DNAs  are labeled with gold nanoparticles, which easily change color due to hybridization in the order of the target game . Using silver staining, DNA analysis can be performed with this optical method on very small plates with high sensitivity  . Although the use of gold nanoparticles may be expensive, but this method has the necessary sensitivity and simplicity for clinical diagnoses.

Note: Examining the band gap structure of nanoelectronic devices, in addition to introducing a method for researching the performance of one-dimensional systems, has made it possible to improve the electrical-optical properties of electronic components.Devices based on organic materials can be mechanically flexible to a large extent because of the loose intermolecular bonds in the nano-electrons created from them. Unlike these organic materials, minerals such as silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide can be used in the structure of electronic devices only in crystalline states, and in this case, covalent bonds make flexibility impossible in them. Makes. Properties such as strength, flexibility, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, color, reactivity, etc. Starting to change the properties of the material by shrinking it depends more than anything on the type of material and the desired property. For example, by reducing the dimensions of a material, generally some mechanical properties of the material such as strength are improved. This increase in strength does not happen only in the range of a few nanometers, and the strength of materials of several tens and even hundreds of nanometers may be much higher than the large-scale mass material. On the other hand, the change of some properties such as color and magnetic properties may occur in dimensions of only a few nanometers.

Note: Signal measurement Electrochemical methods are very suitable for detecting direct DNA oxidation because electrochemical reactions directly generate  electronic signals and therefore do not require expensive converters.In addition, in this process, because the order of the immobilized game  can be limited to only a series of electrode substrates, the act of tracking is performed by a series of inexpensive electrochemical analyzes. Electrochemical sensors are used to perform clinical or environmental tests;  The basis of the sensitivity of electrochemical signals to direct oxidation or interval catalysis of DNA is also based on the reduction reactions of reporter molecules or enzymes. Various methods are used to measure the  signal electrochemically. The basis of signal measurement in direct DNA electrochemistry is based on the oxidation reaction and DNA reduction in a mercury electrode, so the amount of oxidized and reduced DNA is proportional to the amount of DNA that is hybridized with the probe. In addition to the old methods of direct DNA reduction, a method called Stripping Adsorption Voltammetry is used for direct oxidation of DNA, which is a very sensitive method. In the direct electrochemical method, purine is oxidized by materials such as carbon, indiomethin oxide (ITO), gold, and polymer-coated electrodes. Although the direct electrochemical method is a very sensitive method, its application is complex because  for direct oxidation of DNA, a high potential ground current is required. Advanced mathematical and numerical methods are also  needed to measure each signal. Of course, new methods have been designed to eliminate the interference that occurs in the field with the help  of physical methods.

Note: Different parts of the microcontroller are each intended for a specific application. An electronic designer uses different parts according to his needs in the project. For this purpose, it is enough to activate the required settings in the desired section. By choosing a suitable microcontroller, we can implement simple electronic projects by saving the number of digital ICs. The advantage of this method is the high speed of the circuit and its cost-effectiveness.This microcontroller is available in three types of packages. Its two models are SMD type and its simple type with two rows packaging (DIP). The DIP type microcontroller is better placed on the board. This type of microcontroller ICs are used more often. A microcontroller is a programmable device. It means that the work method can be defined according to the need for this part in  the form of a program. In order to be able to define the idea and method of work execution for the microcontroller in such a way  that it can execute the work process accurately. This compact microcomputer (microcontroller) consists of the following different parts.

Note: In nanoelectronic industries; Nano chip, increasing the speed of nano transistors, both types of diamonds, i.e. n and p type stones, are used for nanoelectronic applications in microelectronics. By adding "B" metal impurity to diamond, P type nano diamond can be made. That is, he produced blue diamonds and by adding phosphorus to colorless diamonds, he also produced n-type diamonds.Nowadays, many semiconductors such as silicon are used in a wide range of nanoelectronic devices. However, due to the range of thermal changes and its extremely high speed, nano diamond is only compared to gold nanoparticles, which is the second best nano semiconductor in the world. Nano graphite and graphene nano strips are electrically conductive due to cloud scattering. Active nano diamond particles with such features, especially electronic ones, can be the foundation of completely new types of powerful nano electronic devices.

Note: Nano-telecommunications includes electronic devices and devices  , one of the dimensions of which is about one to several hundred nanometers. Accordingly  , if the antennas used in nano-components are to be in this  range, we should expect the electromagnetic waves used in  the communication of these systems and devices to be around tens of terahertz, which will  include the wavelengths of infrared, visible and ultraviolet. .The antenna is considered as the primary means of absorbing electromagnetic waves in space and has its own engineering knowledge, which is very developed and extensive. In general, in order to receive the electromagnetic wave in space, the dimensions of the antenna must be in the order of the size of the input wavelength to its surface. Due to the very low dimensions of nano-sensors, nano-antennas need a very high operating frequency to be usable. The use of graphene greatly helps to solve this problem. Wave propagation velocities in CNTs and GNRs can be up to 100 times slower than vacuum velocities, depending on the physical structure, temperature and energy. Accordingly, the resonant frequency of graphene-based nano-antennas can be twice as low as (nano-carbon) nano-antennas.

Note: In the construction of nano bio-electrochemical sensors, the minimum parts that are used in a biosensor are: the molecular recognition layer and the signal transducer, which can read out this signal to a measuring device. be connected.DNA is usually a suitable tool as a biosensor because the base pairing reaction between complementary sequences is both specific and stable. In this case, single-stranded probe DNA is immobilized on the detection layer, and then the target DNA reacts with the probe on the surface by pairing. The repetitiveness and unity of DNA structures makes their accumulation on the surface very specific. It is on  this surface that the target DNA is taken and the signal is generated. Therefore, it is important to immobilize the probe nucleic acid while  maintaining its initial adhesion strength for the detection of the target DNA. But how this  diagnostic process is measured depends on the method of signal transduction, which may  be optical, mechanical, or electrochemical.

nanological gates, in order to design nano-scale computers with dual-scale capabilities. All living biological systems function due to the molecular interactions of different subsystems. Molecular components (proteins and nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates, DNA and RNA) can be used as an inspirational strategy on how to design high-performance NEMS and MEMS that have the required features and characteristics. Considered. In addition, analytical and numerical methods are available for dynamic analysis and three-dimensional geometry, bonding and other properties of atoms and molecules. Thus, electromagnetic and mechanical, and other physical and chemical properties can be studied. Nanostructures and nanosystems can be widely used in medicine and health. Possible applications of nanotechnology include: drug synthesis and drug delivery (therapeutic potential is greatly increased due to the effective direct delivery of new types of drugs to specific sites in the body), nanosurgery and nanotherapy Synthesis and detection of genomes, nano-scale stimuli and sensors (diagnosis and prevention of disease), design and implantation of non-rejection artificial organs and design of high performance nanomaterials. It is important that these technologies change the manufacture of materials, devices and systems.