Note: All electrochemical nano biosensors that have a molecular base depend on a very specific system to detect or track their target molecule. The importance of an electrochemical nanobiosensor is to provide a suitable support for connecting the target molecule to the probe and creating an electrical signal that can be measured and read.In the building of electrochemical biosensors, the minimum parts that are used in a biosensor are: molecular recognition layer and signal transducer which can be connected to a measuring device (device readout) of these signals. DNA is usually a suitable tool as a biosensor because the base pairing reaction between complementary sequences is both specific and stable. In this case, single-stranded probe DNA is immobilized on the detection layer, and then the target DNA reacts with the probe on the surface by pairing. The repetitiveness and unity of DNA structures makes their accumulation on the surface very specific. It is on  this surface that the target DNA is taken and the signal is created. Therefore, it is important to immobilize the nucleic acid of the probe while  maintaining its initial adhesion strength to detect the target DNA. But how this  diagnostic process is measured depends on the method of signal transduction, which may  be optical, mechanical, or electrochemical. Optical bisensors that work based on fluorescence light have some characteristics. These types of biosensors are sensitive to molecules per square centimeter. They consist of 7 rows, so that their detection limit  is almost made of thousands of probes.

Note: Since nano antennas have the ability to absorb a wide angle, even in the case of oblique solar radiation to the surface of the solar panel, their efficiency is up to a significant limit is maintained. This system can also transmit the energy radiated from the earth or the terrestrial radiation that is caused by the sun's daily radiation to the earth's surface and in wavelengths <10 micrometers. /span> , i.e. absorb frequencies around 90 terahertz.That's why the reason for the nano antennas of the solar rectna system is to collect these radiations duringat night or in bad weather conditions. can generate electrical energy. Currently, the diode and antenna structures used in solar rectenna using They are made by electronic sketching method. Although this construction method is expensive and time-consuming to produce in laboratory and research scales, but if these structures are produced in a large volume and with the appropriate method , they reduce the cost and speed in the manufacturing process. The surface of the nano-antenna is created, and as a result, a voltage is produced at the place of its feeding gap.

Note: Magnetic water is generally water that passes through a magnetic field created based on specific calculations, and therefore the water changes, improving its physical and chemical properties. Magnetic system can treat water salinity.

Note:  Architecture optimization of traditional multi-element and multi-technological optical circuits is possible using the unique optical behavior of nano-optics, integrated "self-integration" can be achieved by layering one over the other to create overall optical effects. broughtSpatial integration can be achieved by organizing different optical functions into an array structure through repeating nanopatterns. Composite integration is achieved by adding a nano-optical layer(s) to functional optical materials.

Note: In nanotechnology, from modern techniques of molecular simulation to a general framework for the interpretation of AFM images, especially  the analysis of atomic mechanisms that determine the force changes that the microscope measures and the contrast of the image, producesThe recent advent of high-resolution imaging and force spectroscopy using atomic force microscopy (AFM) in organic and inorganic solutions opens the way to imaging a wide variety of surfaces and their solvent structure.  However, to take full advantage of the high resolution and provide significant new analytical capability, a detailed understanding of the background contrast mechanisms that lead to atomic and molecular resolution is critical.  Without a theory that connects the measured force to atomic models of the surface and tip of the microscope, the information that can be distilled from these measurements is limited. Molecular dynamics simulations show that the forces acting on the microscope tip result from the direct interaction between a tip and a surface and are entirely due to the structure of water around the tip and surface.  The observed force depends on a tip structure, and the balance is between the mainly repulsive potential energy changes as the tip approaches the surface and the entropic increase, which is sterically prevented from occupying sites near the tip and the water surface.  Understanding the interplay of these various components that contribute to the force of microscopy measurements is critical to the interpretation of high-resolution images of solution interfaces.

Note: Normally, the laser beam is continuously exited from the optical chamber of the nano laser, the output power of cw nano lasers has a wide range. Liquid and ion nano lasers are examples of continuum lasers. This range includes milliwatts like nano lasers for optical communication to several microwatts (3 to 5 microwatts) like nano lasers used in military industries.The output of nano laser is a type of light that is placed in different parts of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves according to the active environment of nano laser. Wavelength is one of the most important properties of waves, which has an inverse relationship with energy. Therefore, different waves can be displayed as a spectrum of electromagnetic waves.

Note: The carbon atoms of a graphitic sheet (graphene) form a planar lattice network, where each atom is connected to three neighboring atoms through a strong chemical bond. Because of these strong bonds, the elastic modulus of graphite base is one of the largest known materials.For this reason, CNTs are final fibers with high strength. SWNTs are harder than steel and are highly resistant to damage from physical forces. Pressing on the tip of the nanotube causes it to bend, but without damaging the tip. When the force is removed, the tip returns to its original position.

Note: The division is based on the wavelength of the output beam and the wavelength of the output beam of the wide range nano laser. According to this and the wavelength, the types of nano lasers include infrared, visible and ultraviolet lasers, for example, the nano laser  produces a beam with a wavelength of about 858.32 X-rays, the wavelength of a solid nano laser is between 9.6 and 10.6 It is a micrometer. This is because the wavelength of liquid lasers are in the infrared and ultraviolet regions, respectively.Nano lasers work on length scales 1000 times smaller than the thickness of a human hair. The lifetime of the light captured in such small dimensions is so short that the light wave has only a few tens or hundreds of times to move up and down. Nanolasers  open new perspectives for on-chip coherent light sources such as lasers that are extremely small and ultrafast. The performance of nano lasers is based on fast conducting nanoparticles such as silver arranged in a periodic array. Unlike conventional lasers, where laser signal feedback is provided by conventional mirrors, nanolasers use radiative coupling between fast conducting nanoparticles such as silver. These 100 nm particles act as small antennas.To produce high-intensity laser light, the distance between the particles is matched to the laser wavelength so that all the particles in the array are irradiated in unison. Fluorescent organic molecules are used to provide the input energy (gain) required for nano lasers.

Note: Fullerenes are identified according to the number of atoms in their structure. A letter C is used to name fullerenes, which represents the carbon atom in their structure. Fullerenes are among the materials that many nano materials are based on. Their unique structural and electronic properties, as well as their use in various fields such as electronic applications such as making nano electrodes used in special electrical circuits , nano photonics in nano solar cells and nano absorbers of specific wavelengths.

Note: Writes arbitrary and complex patterns using a focused beam of electrons. The advantage is that almost any pattern can be created. The disadvantage of commercial production is that the processing time of an individual wafer can be relatively long (tens to thousands of hours).Nanolithography, which is similar to standard semiconductor manufacturing, generally uses methods to create an image on a polymer resist layer. This image is then used as an etch mask to transfer the nanoscale pattern to the desired material. Nanolithography methods include interference lithography, electron beam lithography (electron beam) and repeating the nano pattern (for definitions to the sidebar). In general, each of these methods is optimal for some nanostructure patterns, materials and required volume. As a manufacturing method, nanolithography supports a wide range of integration modes for optical circuits.

Note:  to easily create interference patterns of useful dimensions using UV light sources. The advantage of this method is simplicity. The problem is in creating complex shapes and arrays.Nanolithography is a branch of nanotechnology that deals with the study and application of fabricating structures at the nanometer scale—meaning the creation of patterns with at least one lateral dimension between the size of an individual atom and approximately 100 nanometers. It is used in the fabrication of advanced semiconductor integrated circuits (nanocircuits) or nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS).Nanolithography is a broad term. To describe different processes for creating nanoscale patterns in different environments, the most common of which is silicon semiconductor material. The dominant goal of nanolithography is the miniaturization of electronic devices, which allows more electronic components to be packed into smaller spaces, i.e. smaller integrated circuits, which leads to smaller devices, because they are produced faster and cheaper. Because less material is needed. This also increases performance and response time because electrons only have to travel very short distances.

Note: The tip of a Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) or Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) offers not only the ability to image down to atomic resolution, but also the capabilities of nanostructures with such excellent resolution. A paradigmatic example is the fabrication of a furnace furnace by manipulating individual atoms on a surface using STM. Although the speed of making such a thing has recently improved, it is a process with great difficulties in scaling and integrating with the semiconductor industry.The use of AFM for scanning probe lithography also suffers from power-related problems, but it is better suited than STM for this task due to the less stringent requirements of the technique: no very high vacuum conditions. , conductive surface or very good tip-to-sample distance control is required. Scanning probe nanolithography based on AFM can be performed through different mechanisms and offers a wide range of possibilities . Therefore, the AFM tip can produce localized changes in the composition, height, or physical/chemical properties of surfaces through thermal effects, mechanical effects, deposition, chemical effects, etc. The principle of this technique for making electronic nano devices has been drawn and the example of making Si nanowires based on the oxidation of nanolithography probe Scanning is done. A derived technique that has become very popular is dip-pen nanolithography, in which the tip deposits specific inks with excellent clarity at desired locations.