We have detected and characterized traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) in the mid-latitude ionosphere over the European region using Kharkiv incoherent scatter (IS) radar data acquired near solstices and equinoxes during solar cycle 24 and under magnetically quiet conditions. We analyzed the diurnal, seasonal and solar activity dependence of both large-scale (LS) and medium-scale (MS) TIDs. We studied 140 TID events and estimated their energetic (relative amplitudes), temporal (dominant periods, frequency of occurrence), and spatial (heights of maximum relative amplitudes, vertical and horizontal phase velocities and wavelengths) characteristics. We suggest that the most probable generation mechanisms of magnetically quiet LS and MS TIDs are solar terminators passages, enhanced gravity wave activity and dissipation, severe tropospheric convection, coupling processes between Es layer and F region, polarization electric fields, and Perkins’s instability. We have shown a positive correlation between the heights of the maximum relative TID amplitudes and the solar activity for LSTIDs. The TID characteristics obtained during extremely quiet conditions provide a useful context for analysing the possible TID response to localized energy releases including those of anthropogenic origin, and enable improvements in global and regional ionospheric models by clarifying the contribution of wave processes to the overall energy budget of the atmosphere and ionosphere.

This work examines the weak stratospheric polar vortex (SPV) event of February 2008 and the strong SPV event of February 2021 to understand the potential influence of SPV strength on midlatitude thermospheric composition and ionospheric plasma density. The weak SPV event shows a reduction in thermospheric O/N2 at all longitudes, changes in the ionospheric total electron content (TEC) that vary with longitude, and an intensification of the semidiurnal tides. The strong SPV event shows O/N2 elevated by up to 25% in the Asian sector and a 25% decrease in semidiurnal tidal amplitude. The TEC response during the strong SPV event is complex, but shows enhanced TEC in the Asian sector where O/N2 is elevated. These are the first observations of anomalies in the thermospheric composition and ionospheric plasma associated with a strong polar vortex event.

The high latitude ionospheric evolution of the May 10-11, 2024, geomagnetic storm is investigated in terms of Total Electron Content and contextualized with Incoherent Scatter Radar and ionosonde observations. Substantial plasma lifting is observed within the initial Storm Enhanced Density plume with ionospheric peak heights increasing by 150km to 300km, reaching levels of up to 630km. Scintillation is observed within the cusp during the initial expansion phase of the storm, spreading across the auroral oval thereafter. Patch transport into the polar cap produces broad regions of scintillation that are rapidly cleared from the region after a strong Interplanetary Magnetic Field reversal at 2230UT. Strong heating and composition changes result in the complete absence of the F2-layer on the 11th, suffocating high latitude convection from dense plasma necessary for Tongue of Ionization and patch formation, ultimately resulting in a suppression of polar cap scintillation on the 11th.

Assessing space weather modeling capability is a key element in improving existing models and developing new ones. In order to track improvement of the models and investigate impacts of forcing, from the lower atmosphere below and from the magnetosphere above, on the performance of ionosphere-thermosphere models, we expand our previous assessment for 2013 March storm event [Shim et al., 2018]. In this study, we evaluate new simulations from upgraded models (Coupled Thermosphere Ionosphere Plasmasphere Electrodynamics (CTIPe) model version 4.1 and Global Ionosphere Thermosphere Model (GITM) version 21.11) and from NCAR Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model with thermosphere and ionosphere extension (WACCM-X) version 2.2 including 8 simulations in the previous study. A simulation of NCAR Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Electrodynamics General Circulation Model version 2 (TIE-GCM 2) is also included for comparison with WACCM-X. TEC and foF2 changes from quiet-time background are considered to evaluate the model performance on the storm impacts. For evaluation, we employ 4 skill scores: Correlation coefficient (CC), root-mean square error (RMSE), ratio of the modeled to observed maximum percentage changes (Yield), and timing error(TE). It is found that the models tend to underestimate the storm-time enhancements of foF2 (F2-layer critical frequency) and TEC (Total Electron Content) and to predict foF2 and/or TEC better in the North America but worse in the Southern Hemisphere. The ensemble simulation for TEC is comparable to results from a data assimilation model (Utah State University-Global Assimilation of Ionospheric Measurement (USU-GAIM)) with differences in skill score less than 3% and 6% for CC and RMSE, respectively.

The Tonga volcano eruption at 04:14:45 UT on 2022-01-15 released enormous amounts of energy into the atmosphere, triggering very significant geophysical variations not only in the immediate proximity of the epicenter but also globally across the whole atmosphere. This study provides a global picture of ionospheric disturbances over an extended period for at least four days. We find traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) radially outbound and inbound along entire Great-Circle loci at primary speeds of ~300-350 m/s (depending on the propagation direction) and 500-1000 km horizontal wavelength for front shocks, going around the globe for three times, passing six times over the continental US in 100 hours since the eruption. TIDs following the shock fronts developed for ~8 hours with 10-30 min predominant periods in near- and far- fields. TID global propagation is consistent with the effect of Lamb waves which travel at the speed of sound. Although these oscillations are often confined to the troposphere, Lamb wave energy is known to leak into the thermosphere through channels of atmospheric resonance at acoustic and gravity wave frequencies, carrying substantial wave amplitudes at high altitudes. Prevailing Lamb waves have been reported in the literature as atmospheric responses to the gigantic Krakatoa eruption in 1883 and other geohazards. This study provides substantial first evidence of their long-duration imprints up in the global ionosphere. This study was enabled by ionospheric measurements from 5,000+ world-wide Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) ground receivers, demonstrating the broad implication of the ionosphere measurement as a sensitive detector for atmospheric waves and geophysical disturbances.

This paper investigates the local and global ionospheric responses to the 2022 Tonga volcano eruption, using ground-based Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) total electron content (TEC), Swarm in-situ plasma density measurements, the Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON) Ion Velocity Meter (IVM) data, and ionosonde measurements. The main results are as follows: (1) A significant local ionospheric hole of more than 10 TECU depletion was observed near the epicenter ~45~min after the eruption, comprising of several cascading TEC decreases and quasi-periodic oscillations. Such a deep local plasma hole was also observed by space-borne in-situ measurements, with an estimated horizontal radius of 10-15 deg and persisted for more than 10 hours in ICON-IVM ion density profiles until local sunrise. (2) Pronounced post-volcanic evening equatorial plasma bubbles (EPBs) were continuously observed across the wide Asia-Oceania area after the arrival of volcano-induced waves; these caused a Ne decrease of 2-3 orders of magnitude at Swarm/ICON altitude between 450-575~km, covered wide longitudinal ranges of more than 140 deg and lasted around 12 hours. (3) Various acoustic-gravity wave modes due to volcano eruption were observed by accurate Beidou geostationary orbit (GEO) TEC, and the huge ionospheric hole was mainly caused by intense shock-acoustic impulses. TEC rate of change index revealed globally propagating ionospheric disturbances at a prevailing Lamb-wave mode of ~315 m/s; the large-scale EPBs could be seeded by acoustic-gravity resonance and coupling to less-damped Lamb waves, under a favorable condition of volcano-induced enhancement of dusktime plasma upward ExB drift and postsunset rise of the equatorial ionospheric F-layer.

The Ionospheric Data Assimilation Four-Dimensional (IDA4D) technique has been coupled to Sami3 is Another Model of the Ionosphere (SAMI3). In this application, ground- and space-based GPS Total Electron Content (TEC) data have been assimilated into SAMI3, while in situ electron densities, autoscaled ionosonde NmF2 and reference GPS stations have been used for validation. IDA4D/SAMI3 shows that Night-time Ionospheric Localized Enhancements (NILE) are formed following geomagnetic storms in November 2003 and August 2018. The NILE phenomenon appears as a moderate, longitudinally extended enhancement of NmF2 at 30-40o N MLAT, occurring in the late evening (20-24 LT) following much larger enhancements of the equatorial anomaly crests in the main phase of the storms. The NILE appears to be caused by upward and northward plasma transport around the dusk terminator, which is consistent with eastward polarization electric fields. Independent validation confirms the presence of the NILE, and indicates that IDA4D is effective in correcting random errors and systematic biases in SAMI3. In all cases, biases and root-mean-square errors are reduced by the data assimilation, typically by a factor of 2 or more. During the most severe part of the November 2003 storm, the uncorrected ionospheric error on a GPS 3D position at 1LSU (Louisiana) is estimated to exceed 34 m. The IDA4D/SAMI3 specification is effective in correcting this down to 10-m.

This work conducts a statistical study of the subauroral polarization stream (SAPS) feature in the North American sector using Millstone Hill incoherent scatter radar measurements from 1979 to 2019, which provides a comprehensive SAPS climatology using a significantly larger database of radar observations than was used in seminal earlier works. Key features of SAPS and associated Ne/Ti/Te are investigated using a superposed epoch analysis method. The characteristics of these parameters are investigated with respect to magnetic local time, season, geomagnetic activity, solar activity, and interplanetary magnetic field orientation, respectively. The main results are as follows: (1) Conditions for SAPS are more favorable for dusk than near midnight, for winter compared to summer, for active geomagnetic periods compared to quiet time, for solar minimum compared to solar maximum, and for IMF conditions with negative By and negative Bz. (2) SAPS is usually associated with a midlatitude trough of 15–20\% depletion in the background density. The SAPS-related trough is more pronounced in the postmidnight sector and near the equinoxes. (3) Subauroral ion and electron temperatures exhibit a 3–8\% (50–120 K) enhancement in SAPS regions, which tend to have higher percentage enhancement during geomagnetically active periods and at midnight. Ion temperature enhancements are more favored during low solar activity periods, while the electron temperature enhancement remains almost constant as a function of the solar cycle. (4) The electron thermal content, Te \times Ne, in the SAPS associated region is strongly dependent on 1/Ne, with Te exhibiting a negative correlation with respect to $Ne$.

We present a new high resolution empirical model for the ionospheric total electron content (TEC). TEC data are obtained from the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers with a 1 x 1 spatial resolution and 5 minute temporal resolution. The linear regression model is developed at 45N, 0E for the years 2000 - 2019 with 30 minute temporal resolution, unprecedented for typical empirical ionospheric models. The model describes dependency of TEC on solar flux, season, geomagnetic activity, and local time. Parameters describing solar and geomagnetic activity are evaluated. In particular, several options for solar flux input to the model are compared, including the traditionally used 10.7cm solar radio flux (F10.7), the Mg II core-to-wing ratio, and formulations of the solar extreme ultraviolet flux (EUV). Ultimately, the extreme ultraviolet flux presented by the Flare Irradiance Spectral Model, integrated from 0.05 to 105.05 nm, best represents the solar flux input to the model. TEC time delays to this solar parameter on the order of several days as well as seasonal modulation of the solar flux terms are included. The Ap_3 index and its history are used to reflect the influence of geomagnetic activity. The root mean squared error of the model (relative to the mean TEC observed in the 30-min window) is 1.9539 TECu. A validation of this model for the first three months of 2020 shows excellent agreement with data. The new model shows significant improvement over the International Reference Ionosphere 2016 (IRI-2016) when the two are compared during 2008 and 2012.

We report new findings of total electron content (TEC) perturbations in the southern hemisphere at conjugate locations to the northern eclipse on 21 August 2017. We identified a persistent conjugate TEC depletion by 10-15\% during eclipse time, elongating along magnetic latitudes with $\sim$5$^\circ$ latitudinal width, moving equatorward, and becoming most pronounced at lower magnetic latitudes ($<$20$^\circ$S) when the ionosphere in the northern low latitudes were masked. This depletion was coincident with a weakening of the southern crest of the equatorial ionization anomaly (EIA), while the northern EIA crest stayed almost undisturbed or was slightly enhanced. We suggest these conjugate perturbations were associated with dramatic eclipse initiated plasma pressure reductions in the flux tubes, with a large portion of shorter tubes located at low latitudes underneath the Moon’s shadow. These small L-shell tubes transversed the F region ionosphere at low and equatorial latitudes. The plasma pressure gradient was markedly skewed northward in the flux tubes at low and equatorial latitudes, as was the neutral pressure. These effects caused a general northward motion tendency for plasma within the flux tubes, and inhibited normal southward diffusion of equatorial fountain plasma into the southern EIA region.

The strongest Southern Hemisphere minor sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) in the last 40 years occurred in September 2019 and resulted in unprecedented weakening of the stratospheric polar vortex. Ionospheric total electron content (TEC) observations are used to provide an overview of statistically significant anomalies in the low-latitude ionosphere during this event. Quasi-semidiurnal perturbations of TEC are observed in response to the SSW, similar to those seen during Northern Hemisphere SSWs. Analysis indicates the existence of quasi-periodic oscillations in TEC in the crests of the equatorial ionization anomaly, with strong 5-6 day and 2-3 day periodicities. Ionospheric anomalies from the combined effects of multiple mechanisms exceed a factor of 2, comparable to the strongest anomalies associated with Northern Hemisphere SSWs. These results also indicate, for the first time, a remarkable longitudinal variation in the character and magnitude of variations that could be related to a modulation of the non-migrating diurnal tide.