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\begin{document}
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\title{Assessing sensitivity of soil water--heat transport simulations to
frozen soil parameterizations in Noah-MP}



\author[1]{Kai Yang}%
\author[1]{Jintao Yang}%
\author[1]{Pinghan Zhaoye}%
\author[1]{Fei Min Zhang}%
\author[2]{Guo Zhang}%
\author[1]{Chenghai Wang}%
\affil[1]{Lanzhou University}%
\affil[2]{China Meteorological Administration}%


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  \date{May 08, 2026}


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\begin{abstract}
Water-heat transport in frozen soil impacts the hydrological processes
in cold region through its influences on the surface energy budget and
water storage. In this study, sensitivities of soil water-heat transport
simulations to parameterizations of soil permeability, supercooled water
and freezing temperature threshold that determines phase change criteria
were assessed in the Noah with multi-parameterization (Noah-MP) land
surface model. The results showed that Noah-MP well reproduce the
seasonal variations in soil temperature and moisture in the freeze-thaw
(FT) process, while it still involves biases in soil temperature and
moisture simulations with RMSE of 4.35  and 0.068 mm
\textsuperscript{3}/mm \textsuperscript{3} at shallow layer during soil
thawing period. Performances of Noah-MP in soil water-heat transport
simulations are not very sensitive to the optional combinations of soil
permeability and supercooled water parametrizations. Nevertheless,
instead of constant freezing temperature, a virtual temperature
implemented to redefine the phase change criteria improves soil moisture
simulations in the FT process evidently by about 20\%--50\% bias
reduction, especially during soil thawing period, and the simulated soil
water--heat coupling relation is consistent with the observations.
Global simulations further validate the improvements of implemented
frozen soil parameterizations in Noah-MP. Results in this study
emphasize the importance of phase change criteria choice in land surface
model for frozen soil hydrothermal regime simulations.%
\end{abstract}%



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