Conclusion
Prenatal SHS exposure during pregnancy increases the risk of AD in school-aged children. The late-onset AD phenotype was most strongly affected by SHS exposure. Our study highlights the importance of public health strategies to reduce SHS exposure in the prenatal period and for earlier AD diagnoses. Further studies that analyze the underlying mechanisms behind the delayed manifestation of the effect of SHS exposure on AD are warranted.
1. Lee JY, Kim J, Ahn K. Time Trends in the Prevalence of Atopic Dermatitis in Korean Children According to Age. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2022;14(1):123-30.
2. Narla S, Silverberg JI. The Role of Environmental Exposures in Atopic Dermatitis. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports. 2020;20(12):74. doi: 10.1007/s11882-020-00971-z.
3. Bjerg A, Hedman L, Perzanowski M, Lundbäck B, Rönmark E. A strong synergism of low birth weight and prenatal smoking on asthma in schoolchildren. Pediatrics. 2011;127(4):e905-12. Epub 20110321. doi: 10.1542/peds.2010-2850. PubMed PMID: 21422092; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3387890.
4. Windham GC, Von Behren J, Waller K, Fenster L. Exposure to environmental and mainstream tobacco smoke and risk of spontaneous abortion. Am J Epidemiol. 1999;149(3):243-7. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009798. PubMed PMID: 9927219.
5. Miyake Y, Tanaka K, Arakawa M. Active and passive maternal smoking during pregnancy and birth outcomes: the Kyushu Okinawa maternal and child health study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2013;13:157. Epub 20130806. doi: 10.1186/1471-2393-13-157. PubMed PMID: 23919433; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3750375.
6. Zlotkowska R, Zejda JE. Fetal and postnatal exposure to tobacco smoke and respiratory health in children. Eur J Epidemiol. 2005;20(8):719-27. doi: 10.1007/s10654-005-0033-z. PubMed PMID: 16151886.
7. Jhun HJ, Seo HG, Lee DH, Sung MW, Kang YD, Syn HC, et al. Self-reported smoking and urinary cotinine levels among pregnant women in Korea and factors associated with smoking during pregnancy. J Korean Med Sci. 2010;25(5):752-7. Epub 20100422. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2010.25.5.752. PubMed PMID: 20436713; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2858836.
8. Oberg M, Jaakkola MS, Woodward A, Peruga A, Prüss-Ustün A. Worldwide burden of disease from exposure to second-hand smoke: a retrospective analysis of data from 192 countries. Lancet. 2011;377(9760):139-46. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(10)61388-8. PubMed PMID: 21112082.
9. Paek YJ, Kang JB, Myung S-K, Lee D-H, Seong M-W, Seo HG, et al. Self-Reported Exposure to Second-Hand Smoke and Positive Urinary Cotinine in Pregnant Nonsmokers. Yonsei Med J. 2009;50(3):345-51.
10. Yang SI, Kim BJ, Lee SY, Kim HB, Lee CM, Yu J, et al. Prenatal Particulate Matter/Tobacco Smoke Increases Infants’ Respiratory Infections: COCOA Study. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2015;7(6):573-82. Epub 20150625. doi: 10.4168/aair.2015.7.6.573. PubMed PMID: 26333704; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4605930.
11. Yang H-J, Lee S-Y, Suh DI, Shin YH, Kim B-J, Seo J-H, et al. The Cohort for Childhood Origin of Asthma and allergic diseases (COCOA) study: design, rationale and methods. BMC Pulmonary Medicine. 2014;14(1):109. doi: 10.1186/1471-2466-14-109.
12. Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: ISAAC. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Steering Committee. Lancet. 1998;351(9111):1225-32. PubMed PMID: 9643741.
13. Roduit C, Frei R, Depner M, Karvonen AM, Renz H, Braun-Fahrländer C, et al. Phenotypes of Atopic Dermatitis Depending on the Timing of Onset and Progression in Childhood. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(7):655-62. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.0556. PubMed PMID: 28531273; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5710337.
14. Lee D-H, Hwang S-H, Lim MK, Oh J-K, Song DY, Yun EH, et al. Performance of urine cotinine and hypomethylation of AHRR and F2RL3 as biomarkers for smoking exposure in a population-based cohort. PLOS ONE. 2017;12(4):e0176783. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176783.
15. Park MJ, Lee SY, Song KB, Lee SH, Choi K, Lee KW, et al. Dog Ownership in Early Life Increased the Risk of Nonatopic Asthma in Children. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology. 2021;182(10):980-8. doi: 10.1159/000516057.
16. Yoshida S, Mishina H, Takeuchi M, Kawakami K. [Association of prenatal maternal, prenatal secondhand, and postnatal secondhand smoking exposures with the incidence of asthma/atopic dermatitis in children: An epidemiological study using checkup data of mothers and children in Kobe city]. Nihon Koshu Eisei Zasshi. 2021;68(10):659-68. Epub 20210715. doi: 10.11236/jph.20-142. PubMed PMID: 34261838.
17. Magnusson LL, Olesen AB, Wennborg H, Olsen J. Wheezing, asthma, hayfever, and atopic eczema in childhood following exposure to tobacco smoke in fetal life. Clin Exp Allergy. 2005;35(12):1550-6. Epub 2006/01/06. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2005.02374.x. PubMed PMID: 16393320.
18. Yu JS, Lee CJ, Lee HS, Kim J, Han Y, Ahn K, et al. Prevalence of atopic dermatitis in Korea: analysis by using national statistics. J Korean Med Sci. 2012;27(6):681-5. Epub 20120526. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2012.27.6.681. PubMed PMID: 22690101; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3369456.
19. Sticozzi C, Belmonte G, Pecorelli A, Arezzini B, Gardi C, Maioli E, et al. Cigarette smoke affects keratinocytes SRB1 expression and localization via H2O2 production and HNE protein adducts formation. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e33592. Epub 20120319. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033592. PubMed PMID: 22442701; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3307738.
20. Egawa M, Kohno Y, Kumano Y. Oxidative effects of cigarette smoke on the human skin. Int J Cosmet Sci. 1999;21(2):83-98. doi: 10.1046/j.1467-2494.1999.181656.x. PubMed PMID: 18505533.
21. Shorey-Kendrick LE, McEvoy CT, Ferguson B, Burchard J, Park BS, Gao L, et al. Vitamin C Prevents Offspring DNA Methylation Changes Associated with Maternal Smoking in Pregnancy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;196(6):745-55. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201610-2141OC. PubMed PMID: 28422514; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5620677.
22. Wang IJ, Chen SL, Lu TP, Chuang EY, Chen PC. Prenatal smoke exposure, DNA methylation, and childhood atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2013;43(5):535-43. Epub 2013/04/23. doi: 10.1111/cea.12108. PubMed PMID: 23600544.
23. Zielińska-Danch W, Wardas W, Sobczak A, Szołtysek-Bołdys I. Estimation of urinary cotinine cut-off points distinguishing non-smokers, passive and active smokers. Biomarkers. 2007;12(5):484-96. Epub 2007/08/19. doi: 10.1080/13547500701421341. PubMed PMID: 17701747.
24. Yamasaki K, Mitsuda N, J-P NA, Eitoku M, Maeda N, Fujieda M, et al. Dose–response relationships between maternal urinary cotinine and placental weight and ratio of placental weight to birth weight: The Japan Environment and Children’s Study. Environmental Research. 2022;205:112470. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112470.
25. Nishihama Y, Nakayama SF, Tabuchi T, Isobe T, Jung C-R, Iwai-Shimada M, et al. Determination of Urinary Cotinine Cut-Off Concentrations for Pregnant Women in the Japan Environment and Children’s Study (JECS). Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(15):5537. PubMed PMID: doi:10.3390/ijerph17155537.
26. Yi O, Kwon HJ, Kim H, Ha M, Hong SJ, Hong YC, et al. Effect of environmental tobacco smoke on atopic dermatitis among children in Korea. Environ Res. 2012;113:40-5. Epub 2012/01/24. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2011.12.012. PubMed PMID: 22264877.
Table 1. Characteristics of the study participants