Preoperative assessment
Before surgery, all patients underwent a routine evaluation, including medical history, physical examination, complete blood count, serum biochemistry and coagulation tests, and urine culture analysis. The level of thrombus extension into the vena cava was radiologically determined using contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) and/or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Echocardiography was used to assess cardiac tumor involvement in advanced cases. Cardiothoracic and general surgeons were preoperatively consulted for all cases, and other technical preparations were made based on the complexity of each case. No patients were administered neoadjuvant therapy. Informed consent was obtained from all patients for surgery.