Ecological and evolutionary traps
Organisms can incorrectly express phenotypes owing to artificial changes in the environment (i.e., an ”ecological trap”) (Schlaepfer et al. 2002), and the expression of inducible defenses can be affected by artificial cues (i.e., abiotic cues, as noted here). Even in the absence of predators, Daphnia can be triggered by anthropogenic chemicals (xenobiotics), such as pesticides (Crispo et al. 2010). For example,Daphnia retrocurva in urban lakes display defensive vertical migration in the presence of a predator and use bright light as a cue (Moore et al., 1998). Although this was not interpreted in the context of an ecological trap, it was suggested that incorrect inducible defenses became maladaptive. Intraspecific variation caused by ecological traps within populations can become maladaptive; therefore, it is necessary to understand the degree of variation and the evolution of maladaptation.